Expectations of achievement

Student, teacher and parent perceptions

Christine M. Rubie-Davies University of Auckland

Elizabeth Peterson University of Auckland
Earl Irving Cognition Consulting
Deborah Widdowson University of Auckland
Robyn Dixon University of Auckland
No. 83

erton (1948) proposed the self-fulfilling prophecy over half a century

M
Research in Education

ago and twenty years later this concept was applied to teachers (Rosen-
thal and Jacobson, 1968). The proposition was that when teachers expected
their students to do well they interacted with them in ways that led to their
expectations being fulfilled. Since then the research has consistently explored
teacher expectations; expectations of significant others for student outcomes
have been largely ignored. For example, while teachers clearly hold expecta-
tions for students, students will have self-expectations and parents will also
have expectations for their children. Furthermore, parents, students and
teachers will have expectations of each other. Yet these various perceptions
have been little explored, and where they have, at most, expectations of two
parties have been included (see Benner and Mistry, 2007, for a recent
example).
The primary aim of the current research was to explore expectations
students, teachers and parents have for one another. An extensive literature
search has not located any other studies that have explored these various
perspectives in one study.

Student expectations
Students’ expectations of themselves at secondary school
It is likely students will have self-expectations and beliefs based on prior
achievement, experience and aspirations of parents and teachers. When
individuals have a strong belief in their ability to achieve a particular goal
they are more likely to design steps towards achieving the goal so ultimately
success will be attained. Self-belief is a powerful motivator. Tavani and Losh
(2003) measured several psychological variables related to the academic
performance of secondary school students. Unsurprisingly student expecta-
tions and motivation were highly correlated as were expectations and
self-confidence. The researchers showed student expectations strongly pre-
36 dicted achievement, followed by parental encouragement, self-motivation
 Expectations of achievement
and self-confidence. While this study was correlational it showed strong
relationships between students’ self-beliefs and academic attainment.

Students’ understanding of their parents’ expectations regarding schooling

To our knowledge, no research has explored student expectations of parents
with regard to schooling. Urdan et al. (2007) conducted a related study in
which they interviewed final year secondary school students about family
influences that affected achievement motivation and performance. The
student comments fell into five broad areas: family pleasing, family obliga-
tion, parental support, aversive family influence and lack of influence.
Parents who held high expectations for their children and provided them
with nurturing support were spoken of by students as having an important
influence on their motivation and achievement; this was the only category
that alluded to positive student expectations of parents. The comments
grouped as ‘aversive family influence’ emphasised negative family role
models and parents with low student expectations. For example, the stu-
dents wanted to do well in order to escape what was viewed as an unsatis-
factory home environment and also to disprove low parental expectations.
A final small group of students believed families had no influence on achieve-
ment and academic motivation.

Students’ expectations of teachers

There has been little research into students’ expectations of their teachers.
Several researchers have shown teachers’ expectations have greater effects
on students than the opposite (Feldman and Theiss, 1982; Rubie-Davies,
2007; Weinstein, 2002). Nevertheless students’ expectations of teachers can
influence student attitudes to school and possibly motivation to learn. In
two qualitative studies and one quantitative, Muller et al. (1999) found that
when students perceived their teachers as caring, students’ self-expectations,
consequent achievement and behaviour were enhanced. Further students
placed more significance on the relationship they had with their teachers
than did teachers. Students invested academically in teachers they perceived
as caring sufficiently about their learning to make additional efforts to
facilitate student achievement.

Parent expectations
Parents’ expectations of secondary school students
Parent expectations have been investigated far less often than those of teach-
ers and yet may be similarly influential. Indeed, Ma (2001) argued that
parent expectations about whether their children would go to university had
more effect on students than either teacher or peer expectations. 37
No. 83
Parent expectations have been posited as affecting student outcomes both
directly through interactions with their children and indirectly through
parental beliefs and perceived efficacy in providing academic support to
Research in Education

their children (Wentzel, 1998). It is conceivable that the longer a student

stays at school, parent aspirations (and student self-conceptions) will
alter in line with grades the student gets from teachers. In other words,
originally optimistic parental expectations could decline when parents
received student grades that were lower than their expectations for their
children. Wentzel (1998), however, studied parents’ expectations of their
grade 1–6 children’s achievement and did not find a declining pattern of
aspirations across the elementary grade levels even after parents received
test results consistently indicating lower achievement than expected. Indeed,
researchers have found high parent expectations positively influence older
students’ achievement and self-perceptions above what standardised test
results may have indicated (Bornholt and Goodnow, 1999; van der Hoeven-
van Doornum et al., 1993; Visser, 1987). Bornholt and Goodnow (1999)
found parent perceptions of their eleven-to-sixteen-year-old children’s aca-
demic achievement were closely related to children’s self-perceptions because
the perceptions and expectations of parents contributed to students’ self-
perceptions (after controlling for examination marks and achievement).
Similarly, in a study of seventh and ninth-grade students, Visser (1987)
found parents could be encouraging of their children and have high expecta-
tions of their performance in mathematics even when they were not com-
petent themselves.

Parents’ expectations of teachers

The study of parent expectations of teachers has been largely neglected in
the literature. Tatar and Horenczyk (2000) found parent expectations were
greatest for the assistance and help they expected teachers to provide, fol-
lowed by teacher competence and then fairness towards students. There
were some differences between mothers’ and fathers’ expectations, however,
with mothers placing more emphasis on fairness, assistance and help than
fathers.

Teacher expectations
Teachers’ expectations of secondary school students
While expectations for students of elementary age have been extensively
explored (e.g. Babad, 1998; Brophy, 1983; Cooper, 1985; Good and Wein-
stein, 1986; Rubie-Davies, 2006; Weinstein, 2002) there has been much less
research in relation to expectations of older students. The effects of teacher
expectations have been assumed to dissipate as students move through the
schooling system as students become more accurate at self-assessment, more
38 autonomous and hence, it is assumed, less easily influenced by teachers’
 Expectations of achievement
perceptions. Some research has shown the influence of teachers’ expecta-
tions declines across elementary school (Kuklinski and Weinstein, 2001) and
others that students may be more vulnerable to teachers’ expectations during
transitions from one school level to another (Jussim et al., 1996).
Clifton and Bulcock (1987) showed that teachers’ academic and effort
expectations at grades 9 and 10 affected teacher grade assignments on
teacher-made tests. Teachers’ academic expectations also affected student
achievement on standardised English and mathematics tests albeit to a lesser
extent than they did grade assignment. This study suggested teacher expecta-
tions can affect student outcomes at secondary school level. Similarly,
Muller (1998) found, controlling for prior performance, teachers’ expecta-
tions were of greater consequence in predicting student achievement gains
and performance than were student expectations. Furthermore, Muller
showed students’ expectations were strongly influenced by expectations of
teachers.

Teachers’ expectations of parents

No studies of teacher expectations of parents were located. One study
explored effects on expectations when teachers perceived their educational
values differed from those of parents. Hauser-Cram and her colleagues
(Hauser-Cram et al., 2003) found that, when previous achievement was
controlled for, teachers had lower expectations of students if they perceived
parents’ educational values differed from their own values, for example
when teachers assumed parents did not value education. These findings
suggest teachers believed some parents were not supportive of children’s
learning and therefore students could not be expected to do well. Such
negative perceptions of parent values by teachers were mostly found when
students came from low socioeconomic groups or belonged to an ethnic
minority.

Barriers to achieving expectations

A number of barriers to achievement of expectations have been identified
in the literature. Among these are financial barriers (Ali and McWhirter,
2006; Luzzo and McWhirter, 2001; McWhirter et al., 2007); lack of paren-
tal support (Ali and McWhirter, 2006; McWhirter et al., 2007), low teacher
expectations and support (Haynes et al., 2006), ethnic and gender discrimi-
nation (Luzzo and McWhirter, 2001) and barriers associated with student
ability and motivation (McWhirter et al., 2007). A further barrier to the
achievement of expectations that might be considered is the practice of
streaming.
Streaming (or tracking, as it is commonly known in the United States) has
often been associated with teacher expectations. Indeed, Gregory (1984)
argued that low teacher expectations for low-ability students were the
most pernicious problem associated with streaming. Oakes has consistently 39
No. 83
shown how streaming can impact negatively not only on the learning
opportunities provided for students considered low-ability but ultimately,
and more important, on their life opportunities (Oakes, 1985, 1988, 1990;
Research in Education

Oakes et al., 1992). It has been shown such negative effects particularly
applied to children from ethnic minority groups and those from low socio-
economic groups, who tended to be unequally distributed in the lower
streams and to receive a ‘dumbed down’ curriculum, compared with middle-
class students of similar ability (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Develop-
ment, 1989; Virginia State Department of Education, 1992; Jussim et al.,
1996; Persell, 1977; Winn and Wilson, 1983). Despite the contentions
about the negative effects of teacher expectations on student achievement,
the practice of streaming continues in several secondary schools in New
Zealand.
The current study aimed to investigate expectations of schooling
achievement from the perspective of students, teachers and parents. This
study is unique in exploring expectations from multiple viewpoints. More-
over, the study explored barriers to fulfilling students’ expectations for
schooling.

Method
Student, parent and teacher focus groups were conducted in three secondary
schools in the Auckland area of New Zealand, one each from a high, middle
and low socioeconomic area. Each focus group consisted of between six and
ten people. Two student focus groups were held in each school (boys par-
ticipated separately from girls) and all students were in either Year 9 or Year
10 (aged approximately thirteen to fifteen years). The students (boys, n =
21; girls, n = 22) were selected at random by a school liaison person with
the proviso that they represented a range of abilities and an ethnic mix. The
vast majority of student participants, however, were New Zealand European
(n = 30), with five identifying as Maori, four as Pacific Island and four as
other ethnic groups. Twenty-six teachers participated in four focus groups,
with two groups at the low socio-economic school and one each at the other
two schools. Nineteen parents participated in one of three focus groups
conducted in each school. The liaison person in each school recruited the
teacher and parent participants. While some of the participants knew each
other they were not necessarily friends. All focus groups were conducted at
the respective schools in a room where interruptions would be minimal. All
participants signed consent forms agreeing to participate. Students under
the age of sixteen signed assent forms and their parents consented to their
participation.
Each focus group lasted one hour and was conducted by two researchers,
one of whom acted as facilitator while the other took notes. All focus
groups were audio-recorded and later transcribed. Together the discussion
notes and audio-tape transcripts provided a complete record of each focus
40 group.
 Expectations of achievement
The discussions in each focus group were guided by a common set of
topics and a similar set of prompts devised by the authors was used (refer
appendix). Several topics were explored and this paper focuses on (a) the
influences on learning and expectations the groups had of schooling and of
the students and (b) barriers to achieving goals and expectations. The lead
questions pertaining to those sections are contained in the appendix.
All transcripts of focus group discussions were analysed. The lead author
read the transcripts through several times to become familiar with what
participants had said and discussed. This process facilitated an understand-
ing of the core ideas and enabled themes to be developed from the data
as recommended by Strauss and Corbin (1998). Statements made by
participants were then systematically coded into categories within themes
for each of the participant groups. Each researcher reviewed the themes
and categories coded in conjunction with close reading of the focus group
transcripts. Discussions occurred where additions and amendments to
coding categories were identified until all researchers were satisfied that the
set of categories and themes identified accurately and exhaustively repre-
sented the data. A total of 389 comments were coded relating to expecta-
tions and perceived barriers to fulfilling expectations from across the three
participant groups. These ideas form the basis for the summary presented
in the results section.

Results
This section will include evidence of what students, teachers and parents
expected students would achieve in school and where students were expected
to be in five years’ time. Teacher and parent expectations as perceived by
each group are also included. This is followed by a section related to how
teachers and students perceive that streaming creates a barrier to achieving
expectations. Although streaming was not an issue included in the focus
group prompts, it was an aspect commonly mentioned by both students and
teachers as impacting on expectations.

Expectations of students as viewed by students, parents and teachers

Students’ expectations were perceived by parents and teachers as emanating
from students themselves, from parents, the media, television, friends and
the school.
I have a Year 10 class . . . like, a lot of them want to go to university . . . I
think a lot of it is their parents as well and their peers because they are
really always motivating each other. [Teacher] [expectations come from]
the media . . . TV . . . friends . . . from themselves . . . school and home.
[Parents]

All groups spoke about students having high expectations for themselves.
Some students had set high expectations for themselves in the hope of 41
No. 83
escaping particular family backgrounds. For example, one student spoke of
the consequences for a brother who had dropped out of school early.
Research in Education

. . . my brother dropped out of college . . . now it’s harder for him to get
a job . . . and I thought I don’t want to be a loser like that. [Student]

Another said:
Yeah, probably (to go to) university so I can get a good job and my main
priority is getting a good house, ’cause I don’t want to be living in some
poor place, ’cause, like, I’ve had a bad childhood, kind of, and I just want
to be better. [Student]

Expectations were also perceived by all groups to be relative to student

achievement and to alter in line with achievement. For example, a parent
responded:
I think they mature and then they become realistic [about their expecta-
tions] and as they actually reach NCEA level 1 [New Zealand national
examination] and they get to Year 11 and then the reality of it all becomes
apparent. So it [their expectation] changes . . . [Parent]

Some students recognised their expectations did not always match those of
parents:
I think my expectations are a little bit lower than my parents’ expectations,
not by much, but a little bit. Because if I come home and I’ve failed some-
thing I sort of get yelled at for doing something wrong. [Student]

A few teachers felt some students had unrealistic expectations. Some

expressed surprise lower-ability students wanted to go to university, as they
did not perceive it was possible.
And I said, whoever told you you could pick any goal you want really didn’t
realise that you were going to say you’re going to be a brain surgeon,
because . . . you can’t tie your shoes. I mean, I don’t want to rain on their
parade but sometimes it’s not too realistic. [Teacher]

However, teachers felt most students had realistic expectations.

They come in with the expectation I’m going to come out of here with
university entrance and I’m going on to university. The vast majority do.
[Teacher]

Students were aware of how their sense of self-efficacy could influence

their expectations:
I think the hardest thing is when you fail . . . especially with teenagers,
when they fail they probably think they can’t do anything else, and I think
that’s when they start going off the rails a bit and start ‘What’s the point
of me doing all of this when I’m just going to fail?’ . . . [Student]

Similarly, they recognised the important role their own attitudes could play
42 in helping them achieve their expectations.
 Expectations of achievement
Because of my brothers, they’re, like, all gangsta and that, . . . and because
we have the same last name people think that I’m going to be the same as
them and because people think that . . . I want to prove them wrong. I
want to be different . . . it just goes back to you wanting to be the best and
you trying your best to get there. [Student]

Aspirations for students’ five-year future

Students, teachers and parents were asked where they expected the students
to be in five years’ time. Of the three groups, students were consistently
positive in their perspectives. Mostly they perceived they would be travel-
ling, doing a job they found fulfilling, or at university or another tertiary
institution completing a degree or apprenticeship.
Doing a job that you enjoy. [Student]
Being happy and fulfilled, like, with your life and what you’ve achieved so
far. [Student]
University, because you get a degree to get a good job. [Student]

Students listed a wide range of potential occupations but did not always
seem sure about the qualifications they would need. For example, some
expected to go into a trade but perceived they needed to obtain a university
degree in order to do so. Similarly when students were asked why they
wished to go travelling they did not appear always to have carefully reasoned
ideas for doing so.
. . . ’cause a lot of people travel when they leave school or after they leave
school . . . and I plan to go straight after school so I have that out of the
way so I can just focus on my job. [Student]

Teachers generally perceived students would be in a range of occupations

or at university. They mostly viewed students’ futures positively and con-
sidered students would be achieving their expectations and contributing to
society. However, some teachers did express negative perceptions of the
future for some students:
It just seems like a wide range of students and things that they will be doing
will be varied. I would say they are mostly going to be valued members of
society . . . and contributing to society. There’ll be a few rotting in jail.
[Teacher]

Parents, too, had high yet realistic expectations for their children’s future.
Most wanted their children to go to university.
I am going to push both my girls to go to university because it gives them
more options when they come out. [Parent]

However, they were also concerned that their children should pursue some-
thing they enjoyed: 43
No. 83
I want to pick up on their interests and say, Well, what do you want to
do . . . and find out from them where they would like to go. But also in
today’s society if you don’t have a qualification it’s going to be very hard
Research in Education

to get into any sort of job. [Parent]

Teacher expectations as viewed by students, parents and teachers

Teachers’ expectations related to classroom behaviour as well as student
attainment. For example, while students perceived teachers expected them
to listen in class, concentrate, consistently put in their best effort, pass exams
and not drop out of school, teachers had broader expectations in terms of
behaviour:
I expect them to take responsibility for their own learning . . . to be courte-
ous . . . to be committed to what the school is trying to do . . . and be a
good citizen . . . Just bring your books, just quietly start your work when
you’ve been asked to do it, don’t yak, yak, yak. Keep your cellphones in
your bag . . . I don’t expect my kids to be rocket scientists but I do expect
them to come here and do their bit . . . don’t be rude to me and don’t be
rude to your classmates. [Teacher]

Teachers agreed their expectations were generally based on information

about student prior and on-going achievement. Teachers also mentioned
interactions with students, answers students gave to questions and the work
students completed as influencing their expectations. Teachers agreed that
at times students surprised them:
. . . before you mark their papers you kind of have an expectation of who’s
going to get what sort of grades and that comes from interactions in
class with the students, how they answer questions or the work they’ve
done . . . the homework that they might’ve handed in, and that may or
may not marry with the result that they get. Sometimes you can be
quite surprised by students who either show a higher or lower achievement
than you were expecting from your classroom interactions with them.
[Teacher]

Some teachers and parents were confident teachers expected all students to
do their best work and tried to help them reach their potential. While many
students expressed positive views of their teachers’ expectations and behav-
iours, such views were frequently counterbalanced by ideas that teachers’
expectations could affect how well students were catered for, particularly
when expectations were low:
. . . if they’ve got a low expectation for you, um, they don’t try and
push you to get higher than that . . . it would affect your learning, ’cause
people think that you can’t do things, so therefore you feel that you are
being held back and you don’t feel good about it, so you just keep quiet.
[Student]

Parents, too, expressed the view that when teachers set low expectations
44 of students this could lower students’ expectations of themselves:
 Expectations of achievement
I think the teachers’ expectations vary according to the children and I think
they can become self-fulfilling . . . the teacher had decided by the end of
term one that Peter [pseudonym] wouldn’t be capable of going on to level
3 . . . it really became self-fulfilling after that, because Peter knew the
teacher had limited confidence in his ability in that subject and I don’t think
there was anything much we could do from there . . . I dream of my child
being the one per cent that turns around, whereas teachers see ninety-nine
per cent of the kids who don’t . . . [Parent]
All groups agreed that when teacher expectations were high they were valu-
able, as teachers then challenged students:
I actually just want them to do the best that they can do . . . I believe you
have the power to push them to achieve better than they could with some-
body else . . . [Teacher]
The teachers know what they are capable of doing and push them to that
level. [Parent]
However, teachers also recognised the powerful positive and negative effects
their expectations could have on students:
Their [students’] expectations change if yours do, I guess. If you start
believing in them and just keep saying, like, You can do it, often some will.
But if they think, oh, you can’t be bothered, don’t care and don’t have
expectations of them, they’ll feel the same, so it’s reflected by you. [Teacher]

Parent expectations as viewed by students, parents and teachers

Parents were viewed as being concerned their children grew into successful
adults who held positive attitudes, were confident and well rounded.
Coming out of school with an attitude . . . that will enable him to go into
whatever area he wishes to and with the attitude . . . and the desire to do
that. So, it’s not so much, for me, . . . about whether he gets a scholarship
or what level he achieves necessarily at school. I do have quite high expec-
tations, but that’s not the most important thing; for me the most important
thing is that he comes out with a broad base that he can then make his
choices from there, and he has the opportunity then to continue and the
desire to continue in whichever area he wishes to follow. [Parent]
Nevertheless there was a view expressed by all groups that parents’ expecta-
tions were high and they wanted their children to go to university:
My parents actually want me to go to a better university than, say, Auckland
University. They want me to go to Harvard or Cambridge . . . [Student]
In my area, technology, you see it hugely, you see these kids whose parents,
you know, they want them to go to university. [Teacher]
. . . I want them to go from school to university, not to a job . . . [Parent]
Individuals in all groups felt parents’ high expectations for their children
were based on parents’ desire for their children to achieve more than they
had, to have the opportunity for a better future than what parents had. 45
No. 83
I think everybody wants their kids to do better than you did. It’s what you
want for them. [Parent]
Research in Education

A lot of parents who have come through education and look back think
that they want their kids to get perhaps what they didn’t have or perhaps
what they didn’t see. [Teacher]

Perhaps because of the high expectations set by many parents, some students
felt pressured by their parents to succeed:
It’s, like, I had a friend . . . and her parents were very, very strict and very
pushy on her homework . . . and they basically told her what she was going
to be when she got older, a doctor . . . and the pressure became so much
for her that she literally began to hate them and she would just be crying
on the phone to me all the time . . . So sometimes that’s not a good thing
when parents are too controlling over you. [Student]

However, students also pressured themselves in order to please their parents:

I personally don’t feel that my parents put pressure on me, but it’s pressure
I put on myself to want to please my parents. My parents are always, like,
That’s okay, just do your best . . . [Student]

Teachers viewed parent expectations as impacting on students in both

positive and negative ways. They viewed some parents as valuing education;
such parents were considered to support their children. Other parents were
viewed as less supportive:
The parents’ expectations are so important because if they don’t place the
value on education, then the kids won’t. When they come to school they’ll
go along with the system and do what they have to do but they’re not really
valuing their education because their parents haven’t passed that on to
them . . . [Teacher]

Interestingly, some parents appeared to think it was difficult to have accurate

expectations for their children as they were so infrequently given informa-
tion about their child’s achievement:
I think the teachers have higher expectations of my daughter here than I
do, because I think they know her in her work and how well she can do
with her work. The only feedback I get is report time, teacher meeting,
which is five minutes. [Parent]

Streaming as a barrier to achieving expectations

Overwhelmingly, teachers and students perceived streaming (in whatever
guise) as affecting teacher expectations and student self-esteem. Students felt
being placed in a low-stream class affected their ability to achieve their
expectations. Further students believed stereotypes were associated with
streaming:
. . . there is always the sort of stereotypes you get with certain classes, like,
46 I know my class, everybody is supposed to be a nerd. [Student]
 Expectations of achievement
Students recognised they were taught more and given more challenging
work in higher-stream classes, suggesting teacher expectations were higher
for top-streamed students.
Our teacher says we have to do better; she doesn’t give us, like, normal
stuff, we have to do more challenging work, to push us. [Student in top-
stream class]
Similarly, students argued placement in lower streamed classes could not
only be inaccurate but that this reduced teachers’ expectations and conse-
quently opportunity to learn:
And some people, even though they’re put in the streams, it’s the wrong
stream for them; they don’t find it challenging. [Student]
Interestingly, some students felt teaching in higher streams was not always
as effective as that in lower streams because teachers altered their practice
in line with expectations. They felt this led to reduced levels of support in
higher-stream classes.
A lot of the teachers in our class [top stream] they expect you to know
what it is all the time and aren’t really that helpful. They write notes on
the board and expect you to be able to use those notes . . . last year I was
doing really bad at maths, and our teacher, all he did was put notes on the
board, and I got moved down a maths class. I got this really good
teacher . . . she was willing to help, to go round individually and see what
was happening and not just put the whole problem up on the board like a
teacher does, and it was really good. [Student]
Teachers were similarly negative in their views towards the ways they
perceived streaming impacted on both teacher and student expectations.
While teachers acknowledged they should have high expectations for all
streams teachers believed streaming led to expectations of differences not
only in student ability but also in effort:
. . . there does seem to be an expectation within the culture of the school
that even just miniscule, small changes between one class to another that
there will be large differences perhaps in the ability or work ethic and effort
of the students. There’s an expectation of lower streams . . . they tend to
get a reputation as being not hard-working or may cause a bit of trouble
or be more difficult because they are lower-stream . . . [Teacher]
One outcome teachers, but not students, spoke about in relation to
streaming was the effects streaming had on students’ self-efficacy and self-
belief and, ultimately, their self-expectations:
There is another thing, you know, tied in with expectation: it’s your self-
efficacy. You get your own worth from your expectation, too, and if you
are placed in a group where you’re here and people feel this way about
you or that way about you, that knocks the amount of expectation you are
going to have of yourself, because over time, if you continue in that system,
whatever achievement you expect of yourself becomes eroded because
other things take precedence over that achievement. [Teacher] 47
No. 83
And similarly:
The majority . . . that have come into the class have been moved down a
Research in Education

stream . . . and I think that some are possibly feeling—not feeling very
good about themselves . . . feeling, like, Oh well, nobody thinks I can do
anything, so I’m not going to do anything anyway . . . and the same for
children that go up as well: suddenly you can just see they have a different
look about them, they are so proud. [Teacher]

Discussion
Exploring expectations from multiple perspectives (student, teacher and
parent) has provided an enriched view of the significance of expectations for
student performance and of how expectations of valued others and of stu-
dents themselves contribute to student perceptions and aspirations. Students,
teachers and parents recognise their contribution to student expectations and
outcomes. In keeping with the findings in a recent study (Ali and McWhirter,
2006), there was an expectation by all groups that school success is an
important route to overcoming any disadvantage of home background.
Students had overwhelmingly positive expectations for their futures.
Teachers and parents were similarly optimistic, although teachers expected
that not all students would have a positive future. Parents expected their
children to complete school successfully and to become confident adults. It
is likely the positive attitudes of all groups served to motivate and encourage
the students to succeed.
One barrier to the fulfilment of high expectations for school achievement
that emerged was the practice of streaming. Both teachers and students were
almost universally negative in their appraisal of streaming and the impact
of the practice on expectations and outcomes. Allocation of students to a
particular stream was viewed as not always being accurate, resulting at times
in students being given work that was not challenging. Teachers viewed
downward movement and the placement of students in lower streams as
having a negative effect on student self-efficacy and behaviour. Further,
teachers and students recognised an alignment between the stream students
were placed in and teachers’ expectations for success; both groups perceived
student outcomes related to the stream they were in, so that those in high
streams become more successful while those in low tracks do not.
Teacher expectations were regarded by teachers as being formed as a
result of student–teacher interactions and on-going assessment of student
work. However, even teachers acknowledged expectations were not always
accurate and at times needed adjusting. All groups recognised the pernicious
effects of low teacher expectations. Students were considered to be vulner-
able when teacher expectations were low, since it was perceived that student
self-belief declined in such a situation and with that came a corresponding
decline in performance. Some teachers were recognised as holding high
expectations for their students and it was felt that such teachers facilitated
48 students’ self-belief and achievement of their potential.
 Expectations of achievement
Generally, parents considered their expectations had a less direct effect
on student outcomes. This finding is in contrast to that of Ma (2001), who
showed that parent expectations had greater impact on student performance
than teacher expectations. Further, van der Hoeven-van Doornum and col-
leagues (1993) found that high parent expectations could influence teachers’
expectations. Parents in the current study may not have fully recognised
their part in the expectation–achievement cycle. Nevertheless, all groups
acknowledged that parents had high expectations for their children. It was
considered parents wanted a successful future for their children and often
a future that was better than the parents themselves enjoyed. For some
students, this meant they strove to be successful to please their parents,
which is in keeping with other findings (Peterson and Irving, 2008; Urdan
et al., 2007). However, there were some students who felt overburdened
by parents’ unrealistically high expectations to succeed. Clayson (2005)
argued that, when expectations were unrealistically high, students would
inevitably be disappointed with their results and ultimately this could have
negative effects on student self-belief and motivation.
Teachers did not appear to distinguish between parents of different socio-
economic groups in terms of the level of interest they might take in their
children’s learning and the support parents provided. However, they did
perceive that the value parents placed on education was reflected in students’
valuing of their own education. This finding supports that of Hauser-Cram
and colleagues (2003), who showed teachers viewed the values of some
parents as not aligning with their own; in these instances teachers held lower
expectations for the students of such parents. In the current study where
there was a non-alignment of values this was viewed by the teachers as
affecting student motivation and therefore success.
The study has explored expectations from the perspective of students,
teachers and parents from within the same communities. It has provided
unique insights into the multiple viewpoints related to expectations of stu-
dents, teachers and parents by students, teachers and parents. No other
study has been located that focuses closely on these interrelationships with
regard to expectations. Generally, all groups were viewed positively by the
others, although there were some caveats.
While the study has provided many interesting findings related to stu-
dents’, teachers’ and parents’ expectations, any conclusions must be regarded
as tentative, since the findings relate to a limited number of participants
engaged in focus groups. One direction for future research, therefore, is to
conduct a large-scale questionnaire based on the findings which could
explore student, teacher and parent beliefs and expectations across a much
broader population. A further alternative is to explore some of the issues
raised in this article in more depth with students, teachers and parents. For
example, there is some evidence the student–teacher relationship is impor-
tant in enhancing student expectations and success (Muller et al., 1999) and
this aspect could be further explored from teacher, student and parent per-
spectives. It needs to remembered, however, that both focus groups and 49
No. 83
questionnaires are reliant on self-report evidence. There is research to show
that there can be a disparity between what people report and their actions
(Sowth et al., 2003) and hence some caution is needed in interpreting results
Research in Education

based on self-report evidence.

Nevertheless educational research frequently focuses firmly on one key
player in the education of our children: the student or the teacher or the
parent. Exploring various perspectives as in the current study enriches the
data collected and enhances understanding of influences that can boost
student success and achievement. A clearer understanding within studies of
the influence of the key participants may lead to improved outcomes for all
students.

Appendix
Prompts related to expectations for teacher, student and parent
focus groups
Students
At the end of schooling, what do you expect your education to get you?
Where do you see yourselves in five years’ time/after you’ve left school?
Why? Explain.
What will get you there/what will need to happen for you to get there?
What do your parents/caregivers expect from your education?
What do they say (or otherwise indicate) they expect you to achieve?
What are your teachers’ expectations for your educational outcomes?
What do you think they expect you to achieve? Why?
What are the barriers, if any, to fulfilling your expectations?
Are these barriers fixed or movable (alterable)? Explain.

Teachers
What kinds of expectations for school success do student have?
What kinds of expectations for school success do parents have?
Where do students’ and parents’ expectations about school success come from? What
influences these?
What kinds of expectations for school success do you have for your students?
Where do your expectations about your students’ school success come from? What
influences these?
Where do you see your class in five years’ time? Explain.
Have your expectations for your class changed? Why?
In what ways do students’ expectations change, if at all?
What influences changes in expectations?

Parents
What kinds of expectations for school success do you have for your child?
Where do these come from?
How have your expectations changed, if at all?
What kinds of expectations for school success does your child have?
50 Where do these come from?
 Expectations of achievement
How have your child’s expectations changed, if at all?
What kinds of expectations for school success does your child’s teacher have for
your child?
Why do you think that is?
Where do your expectations about school success come from?
What influences these?
Where do you see your child in five years’ time/after leaving school? Explain.
What will get your child there? Explain.
What barriers are there to your child getting there?
Are these barriers fixed or movable?

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Address for correspondence

Christine M. Rubie-Davies, School of Teaching, Learning and Development, Faculty
of Education, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand.
E-mail c.rubie@auckland.ac.nz

53
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