Acoustic Waves and Tools: Baker Atlas Montrose Training Centre

Baker Atlas
Montrose Training Centre
Acoustic Waves and Tools
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Measurement of acoustic wave propagation in the subsurface has been employed in seismic
exploration for several decades. As seismic reflection data proved to be highly valuable in
delineating subsurface structures, the need to convert seismic wave travel times in terms of depth
increased. The idea of continuous velocity logging was originally conceived for this purpose.
However, the acoustic log was also found to be effective in the determination of porosity,
lithological correlation, and detection of secondary porosity. It soon became one of the standard
formation evaluation tools.
Western Atlas Logging Services introduced the Acoustilog as a commercial service in 1954. The
Acoustilog instrument measures the time of transit of a longitudinally propagating compressional
wave through a unit distance of formation. This transit time, ∆ t, known as specific acoustic
time, denotes the time in microseconds taken by the compressional wave to travel through one
foot of rock.
The next generation of acoustic tools are based on the WTS telemetry system. These tools are
collectively know as array acoustic tools. These tools are designed to acquire the waveform of
interest, processes it for transmission and send the data to a surface acquisition system. This
surface acquisition system (ECLIPS) will then perform ∆ t computations and full wave processing
at the wellsite.
Currently there are 3 tools that fit this category; DAC (Digital Array Acoustilog), MAC (Multi-
pole Array Acoustilog) and DAL ( Digital Acoustilog). The DAL is a direct replacement for the
old 1600 series Acoustilog tool from the 1970’s.
Figure 1 on the following page shows the 3 tools and how they are configured.

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Figure 1 Acoustic Services

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2.0 THEORY (Or everything you always tried to avoid in Physics)
As an introduction to how the acoustic tool works, i.e., how the acoustic tool causes a signal to be
induced into a formation, propagated through the formation and received at the other end, we must
explore some basic college physics. We will look into wave theory, elasticity of matter, Snell’s
law and finally how all this ties into how the acoustic tool works in a wellbore. All of these basic
physic properties play a role in acoustic logging. We use wave theory to see how a acoustic signal
propagates through the borehole and formation. Snell’s law explains how the acoustic signal is
refracted into the formation at the correct angle to ensure the signal travels in the direction we
need it to go. And finally, if matter were not elastic by nature, waves would not be able to
propagate.
But firstly, we need to explore how we generate this acoustic energy that will be discussed on the
following pages.

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2.1 Piezoelectric Transducers
The piezoelectric property of a transducer is

such that it can change electrical energy
into sound OR transform the received
sound into electrical impulses. A material
that has piezoelectric properties will
develop a potential between opposite faces
when the material, i.e., when either
compressed or stretched (Figure 2).
Another property of a piezoelectric material
is that a change in diameter occurs when a
potential is applied between opposite faces
of the material. It is this property that is
utilised in the transmitting and receiving
transducers of the present Acoustic
instruments.
The inside of a transmitting piezoelectric

transducer cylinder is coated with metal and
serves as one electrical contact. The
outside of the cylinder is also coated with
metal and is the other electrical contact.
When a high potential is developed across
these contacts by discharging a capacitor,
the material is momentarily deformed,
causing it to ring or oscillate at the desired
frequency.
Note: There are different frequencies for

different tools. The actual
piezoelectric material may also
change between tools, however the
theoretical operation remains the
same.
The receiving transducer is physically the

same as the transmitter: when sonic energy Figure 2 Piezoelectric Devices
strikes the receiver, it oscillates and
develops a small voltage between the faces of the cylinder. This voltage is amplified, processed
and sent via the logging cable to the surface acquisition system.

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2.2 Snell’s Law
When an acoustic wave passes from one medium into another, part of the incident wave is
reflected at the boundary. The remainder passes into the new medium. If the acoustic wave is
incident at an angle to the surface (other than perpendicular), the wave is bent as it enters the new
medium. This bending is called refraction. See Figure 3(a) of acoustic wave passing from
borehole into the formation. The angle ϑ1 is the angle of incidence and ϑ 2 is the angle of
refraction. Notice that the wave bends away from the normal when entering the formation. This
is always the case when the wave enters a medium where the speed of prorogation is greater.
If a wave travels from one medium into a second where its speed is less, the wave bends towards
the normal; this is shown in Figure 3(b) for a wave travelling from the formation to the borehole
fluid.
The angle of refraction depends on the speed

of the acoustic wave in the two media and on
the incident angle. An analytical relation
between ϑ1 and ϑ 2 was arrived at
experimentally about 1621 by Willebrord
Snell (1591-1626). It is known as Snell's law
and is written:
n1 sin ϑ1 = n2 sin ϑ2 or v 2 sin ϑ1 = v1 sin ϑ2

Equation 1
ϑ1 is the angle of incidence and ϑ2 is the angle

of refraction (both measured with respect to a
line perpendicular to the surface between the
two media, as shown in previous figure); n1,
and n2 are the respective indices of refraction
in the materials. The index of refraction is
given as:
Figure 3 Angle of Incidence s

ny =
vy
where s = speed of sound in air and

vy = velocity in the given medium.

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We can now create a more direct form of Snell’s law for sound waves:
s s sin ϑ2 v 2
sin ϑ1 = sin ϑ2 ∴ = and the general law is written as:
v1 v2 sin ϑ1 v1
v 2 sin ϑ1 = v1 sin ϑ2
Equation 2
It is clear from Snell's law that if v1 > v2, then ϑ 2 > ϑ1 ; that is, if an acoustic wave enters a
medium where v is greater, then the wave is bent away from the normal. And if v2 > v1, then
ϑ < ϑ1 , so the wave bends towards the normal.
2
When the wave passes from one material into a second material where the index of refraction is
less (or velocity is greater, as in from borehole fluid into the formation), the wave bends away
from the normal, as for wave A in Figure 4. At a particular incident angle, the angle of refraction
will be 90', and the refracted wave would skim the surface (wave B) in this case. The incident
angle at which this occurs is called the critical angle ϑc . From Snell's law, ϑc is given by
v1
sin ϑcc = sin 90 o since sin 90o is equal to 1
v2
v1
sin ϑc = where v1 is fluid velocity, v2 is formation velocity.
v2
Figure 4 Critical Angle of Incidence

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For any incident angle less than ϑc there will be a refracted wave, although part of the signal will
also be reflected at the boundary. However, for incident angles greater than ϑc , Snell's law would
tell us that sin ϑ 2 is greater than 1.00. Yet the sine of an angle can never be greater than 1.00. In
this case there is no refracted wave at all, and all of the incident wave is reflected, as for wave C in
Figure 4. This effect is called total internal reflection. But note that total internal reflection can
occur only when a wave strikes a boundary where the medium beyond is less dense-that is, it has a
lower index of refraction.
2.3 Wave Theory
Although waves may travel over long distances, the particles of the medium vibrate only over a
limited region of space. When a wave travels down a rope, say from left to right, the particles of
the rope vibrate up and down in a direction transverse (or perpendicular) to the motion of the
wave itself. Such a wave is called a transverse wave. There exists another type of wave known as
a longitudinal wave. In a longitudinal wave, the vibration of the particles of the medium is along
the same direction as the motion of the wave. Longitudinal waves are readily formed on a
stretched spring or "slinky" by alternately compressing and expanding one end. A series of
compression and expansions propagate along the spring. The compression are those areas where
the coils are momentarily close together. Expansions (sometimes called rarefaction) are regions
where the coils are momentarily far apart. Compression and expansion correspond to the crests
and troughs of a transverse wave.
In acoustic logging the transverse wave is known

as the shear wave. The longitudinal wave is know
as the compressional wave. Examples of how
shear and compressional look as they are
propagated are shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 Wave Types

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2.4 Elasticity
Elasticity is the property of matter

that causes it to resist deformation
in volume or shape. Hooke's Law
describing the behaviour of elastic
materials states that for small
deformations, the resulting strain is
proportional to the applied stress.
Stress is the force applied per unit
area, and strain is the fractional
distortion which results because of
the acting force. Three types of
deformation can result, depending
on the mode of the acting force and
the media that the force is acting
upon. The modulus of elasticity is
the ratio of stress to strain.
Figure 6 Elasticity
Correspondingly, the three elastic
moduli are:
F / A stress
E= = (Young’s Modulus)
dl / l strain
F / A stress
K= = (Bulk Modulus)
dv / v strain
F / A stress
G= = (Shear Modulus)
tan s strain
where F/A is the force per unit area, dl/l,

dv/v, and tan s are the fractional strains
of length, volume, and shape, Figure 7 Bulk Modulus
respectively.

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A displacement temporarily imposed upon an elastic medium produces an oscillating motion of

particles after the cause of the displacement is removed. This oscillating motion is transmitted
through the medium over long distances from the origin of displacement. The vibratory state
generated in an elastic medium is
called an elastic wave or acoustic
wave. The particles of the
medium do not travel with the
wave, but only vibrate around
their mean central position.
Acoustic waves are classified into
two groups, according to the
direction of particle displacement
with respect to the direction of
wave propagation. Elastic waves
in which the particle displacement
is parallel to the direction of
propagation are called
longitudinal waves. In transverse
waves, the direction of particle
displacement is perpendicular to
the direction of propagation. Figure 8 Shear Modulus
2.5 Borehole and Formation Waves
Conventional acoustic logging tools employ piezoelectric transducers to generate and measure
acoustic waves in geological formations. Typically, these instruments are centred in a borehole
filled with fluid. The transmitter generates an omni-directional, compressional wave in the
borehole fluid (shear waves cannot exist in fluids). At the interface of the formation and the fluid,
the wave undergoes what is known as mode conversion.
Mode conversion is the refraction of the shear and compressional waves into the formation by the
borehole compressional wave.
The phenomenon of the reflection and refraction is quite complicated, especially in a cylindrical
borehole. In general, depending on the angle of incidence and the acoustic velocity of the two
media, the incident wave is converted into three components:
♦ Reflected compressional wave

♦ Transmitted compressional wave
♦ Transmitted shear wave

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In order to measure the shear or compressional wave, it is necessary that the transmitted wave's
direction of propagation is parallel to the centre axis of the borehole. This requires that the angle
of incidence of the compressional wave, is such that the transmitted shear and transmitted
compressional are refracted 90 degrees from normal. These waves are typically referred to as
head waves; body waves that travel vertically in the formation near the wall at compressional or
shear velocity and are radiated into the borehole at the critical angle.
The propagation constants of the reflected and refracted waves along the surface of the interface
must be equal. This leads to Snell's Law for compressional and shear waves.
v 2 sin ϑ1 = v1 sin ϑ2
where:
v2 = the velocity of the formation
v1 = the velocity of the borehole fluid
and for the critical angle:
v1
sin ϑc =
v2
therefore:
vCB v
sin ϑIC = sin ϑTC = CB sin ϑTS
vCF vSF
where:
VCB = Compressional velocity of the borehole fluid.

VCF = Compressional wave velocity of the formation.
VSF = Shear wave velocity of the formation.
ϑIC = Angle of incidence of the incident compressional wave.
ϑTC = Angle of the transmitted Compressional Wave.
ϑTS = Angle of the transmitted Shear Wave.
Based on this relationship, it is clear that to generate a measurable shear wave (through mode
conversion) the compressional velocity of the borehole fluid must be slower than the shear
velocity of the formation.
v CB
〈1
v SF

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This requirement can be a real problem in what is know as slow formations. The physics are such
that a shear wave cannot be induced into the formation. The need for shear wave measurements in
"slow" formations has led to the development of transducers which excite shear waves "directly".
Currently, the MAC tool is used by Western Atlas Logging Services to induce a direct shear wave
into the formation. This is done with a dipole transducer. MAC will be discussed in another
lecture.
2.6 Compressional Waves
The compressional wave (or p-wave) is one of the longitudinal type of elastic waves in that the
direction of propagation is parallel to the direction of particle displacement. The displacement of
a particle toward its neighbour in the direction away from the origin of the wave creates a zone of
compression in an elastic medium. The neighbouring particle in turn moves toward the next one,
thus, propagating the compression. After being displaced, each particle tends to return to its
original position because of elasticity. In doing so, it overshoots its initial position and a zone of
rarefaction is created. Thus, compressional waves consist of a compression and rarefaction
travelling in a medium in the direction away from the source. Such waves can be transmitted
through solids, liquids, and gases, because there exists a resistance to compression in all three
states of matter. A compression together with an adjacent rarefaction, preceding or following it,
constitutes a complete cycle. The number of cycles propagating through a point in the medium in
a unit time is the frequency. High frequency compressional and extensional forces causes high
frequency changes in the pressure of the medium.
The velocity of elastic wave propagation in an isotropic homogeneous medium can be derived
from a combination of the theory of elasticity with Newton's law of motion. Compressional
waves travel faster than other wave types and, therefore, are often referred to as the first arrival
waves. Compressional wave velocity is a function of the density and elastic moduli of the
medium.
where:
4
K+ G
3 VC = compressional wave
Vc =
ρ velocity, cm/sec.
K = bulk modulus of elasticity,
Equation 3 dynes/cm .2
G = shear modulus of elasticity,

2
dynes/cm .
ρ = density of medium, g/cm3.

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For example, in the case of a non-porous limestone,
K = 69 x 1010 dynes/cm2
G = 31 x 1010 dynes/cm2
ρ = 2.71 gm/cm3 (limestone matrix density).
Therefore, compressional wave velocity in a limestone matrix is calculated as:
4
69 x1010 + (31x1010
3
Vc =
2.71
= 640,000 cm/sec or 21,000 ft/sec
The reciprocal of velocity is the specific acoustic time also known as slowness, which is
recorded on the log in microseconds/ft. For limestone matrix, the slowness or interval transit time
for the compressional wave is:
∆t = 1,000,000/21,000 = 47.6 µs/ft
The important point is that the acoustic travel time is explicitly related to the density and elasticity
of the material.
2.7 Shear Waves
The shear wave (or S-wave) is a transverse wave. In such waves, the direction of propagation is
perpendicular to the direction of particle displacement. Particles of a rigid medium undergo to-
and-fro motion around their mean position in a direction perpendicular to the direction in which
the waves travel. Solids have the tendency to oppose shearing forces, which cause particles to
slide relative to each other. Liquids and gases, on the other hand, do not possess any rigidity;
therefore, shear waves cannot be transmitted through them.
Shear waves are propagated through a solid elastic medium with a velocity,
G where:
Vs =
ρ
VS = shear wave velocity, cm/sec
Equation G = shear modulus of elasticity,
4 dynes/cm2.
ρ = density of medium, g/cm3.

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Shear wave velocity in a non-porous limestone will be, accordingly:
G = 31 x 1010 dynes/cm2
ρ = 2.71 g/cm3
31x1010
Vs =
2.71
= 338,000 cm/sec or 11,100 ft/sec
The slowness for shear waves in limestone matrix is 90 µs/ft.
The first arrival of the acoustic pulse at the receiver denotes the compressional wave, which has
the highest velocity of all the different types of elastic waves. It can be shown that Vc > 2Vs . In
general, shear wave velocity is about .5 to .7 times the compressional wave velocity. Therefore,
shear waves arrive at the receiver later than compressional waves.
2.8 Leaky Mode
A portion of the approximately spherical wave leaving the transmitter is incident on the formation
wall at an angle between the critical angle of refraction for shear and compressional waves. This
incident wave undergoes both internal reflection and conversion into shear waves which are
refracted into the formation. The reflected part (ignoring the effects of the tool body) then
proceeds vertically in the borehole as a conical wave by repeated reflection at the wall. Its phase
velocity normally lies between the formation compressional and shear waves. At each reflection,
that part of the energy "leaked" into the formation by the conversion into shear reduces the amount
of energy available for internal reflection. Hence, the amplitude of the leaky mode decreases with
vertical distance from the transmitter. The amplitude of the wave is directly proportional to
Poisson's Ratio, thus the leaky mode is expected to be most visible in soft formations (large
Poisson's ratio). Mode trapping resonance occurs only for wavelengths satisfying conditions for
reinforcement, and not for destructive interference. Thus, for a given value of compressional
critical angle, shear critical angle, borehole size, transmitter frequency, and tool body, (not
quantified at this time) determines whether the leaky mode exists in a particular case.

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2.9 Pseudo-Rayleigh
When the shear wave is present (VSF > VCB ), a phenomenon somewhat analogous to the leaky
mode is permitted. That portion of the wave incident on the borehole at angles greater than
shear critical angle suffers total internal reflection and propagates up the hole as a conical wave.
Since refraction of energy into the borehole is prohibited, there is no energy leakage on each
reflection and the wave does not exhibit the attenuation of the leaky mode. This wave is referred
to by the following names: reflected conical wave, guided wave, normal mode, and pseudo-
Rayleigh wave. When it is excited, it follows the shear wave arrival in the wave train. The
properties of this wave type depend upon the dispersion characteristics governed by the borehole
diameter and the densities and elastic constants of the borehole fluid and formation, and upon the
frequency characteristics of the transmitter. Because no energy is refracted into the formation,
these waves can exhibit relatively large amplitudes. This wave is dispersive, its low frequency
components propagate at the shear velocity of the formation while its high frequency components
propagate at the borehole fluid velocity. The Pseudo Rayleigh wave has a cut-off frequency below
which the wave will not propagate up the borehole.
2.10 Reverberant Waves
Reverberant waves have some properties that are similar to the leaky and pseudo-Rayleigh waves,
suffering reflection at the compressional and shear critical angles of refraction. The energy
radiated back into the borehole, as a critically refracted compressional and shear waves moves
vertically along the wall, is reflected from the sonde body or both reflected and critically refracted
at the opposite side of the hole. The reflected wave impinges on the wall again, suffers critical
angle refraction, and interferes with its "parent" wave already travelling along the wall. This
interference is constructive for certain wavelengths and destructive for others depending on the
time spent in the borehole by the reflected wave and the ratio of the fluid velocity to the velocity
of the body wave under consideration.
Since formation head waves are continuously shedding energy into the borehole, this process is a
continuous one as head-waves move along the wall. At the receiver the reverberant waves appear
in the tails following the compressional and shear arrivals.

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2.11 Stoneley Wave
The Stoneley wave, sometimes known as a tube wave, is a guided wave that travels on the
interface between the formation and borehole fluid. The behaviour of the Stoneley wave is
characterised by; (1) No cut-off frequency, (2) Dispersion is very mild, (3) For all frequencies
Stoneley wave velocity is less than fluid velocity, (4) Group velocity nearly equals phase velocity
over the frequency range. Being a surface wave, the Stoneley wave has a maximum amplitude at
the wall of the borehole, and decays radially away from the wall.
Its velocity at low frequencies is given by
1 1 where ρ , K, and G
VST = ρ ( + ) are defined
K G
previously. See
Equation 5 Figure 9.
2.12 Subsurface Wave

Propagation (A quick
review)
Particles in solids, liquids, and gasses oppose

compressional forces. Because of the internal Figure 9 Borehole Waves
opposition to compression, the particles oscillate
away from and toward the elastic disturbance. As a result of this particle oscillation, an acoustic
wave radiates away from the elastic disturbance and in the same direction as particle
displacement. An acoustic wave propagated in this manner is called a compressional wave and
can be illustrated with a spring being compressed.
It is the first compressional wave created in the borehole fluid (from the formation) which is of
primary interest in Acoustic ∆ t logging. This wave, after having travelled through the formation,
will be the first to be detected by receiving transducers.
In Acoustic logging the acoustic wave is produced by a transmitting transducer. The wave
radiates outward from the transmitter as a compressional wave and travels through the borehole at
a velocity characteristic of the fluid. At the face of the formation the acoustic wave is refracted
and travels through the formation as a compressional wave at a velocity characteristic of the
formation. The propagation of a compressional wave is perpendicular to the wavefront and the
particles of the medium oscillate parallel to the direction of propagation. If, at some vertical
distance along the well bore, we consider the compressional wavefronts immediately adjacent to
the borehole, the direction of propagation will be parallel to the face of the formation due to
refraction. Because of the nature of the wave, during its forward motion the formation will be
compressed and there will result a minute lateral movement into the borehole fluid.

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Because of this lateral displacement of the formation, other compressional waves will be
successively produced in the fluid all along the borehole, including a point opposite the Acoustic
receivers. During the rarefaction half-cycle of the acoustic wave, the lateral formation movement
will he in the same direction, but the relative motion will be away from the borehole. This motion
of the formation perpendicular to the axis of the borehole creates a shear wave.
Comparison of the two equations for shear and compressional velocities show that compressional
velocity would be greater than shear velocity for any solid medium. For the rocks commonly seen
on well logs, the compressional wave velocity is 40% to 50% faster than the shear wave velocity.
The compressional wave is the first signal to arrive at the receiver. If the transmitter and
receiver were quite far apart, the compressional wave would be completely attenuated prior to the
arrival of the shear wave and distinguishing between the two would be easy. However, this will
never be the case. The transmitter to receiver spacing cannot be so long as to allow complete
separation of the compressional and shear waves because the shear wave arrives before the
compressional wave dies away. In fact, it would be very undesirable for us to lose any portion of
the acoustic wave in regards to the compressional, Shear or Stoneley waves. The two waves are
mixed and usually distortion of the wave train occurs where the two waves meet.
Figure 10 Wave Types In a Composite Wave

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3.0 MORE ACOUSTIC PHYSICS
3.1 Divergence of Energy
The amplitude of the acoustic wave is decreased as the

wave moves away from the source. The distance of the
receiver from the transmitter is, therefore, an important
factor to consider when predicting signal amplitude. With
an instrument using two receivers, the receiver nearest the
transmitter would see stronger acoustic waves than the
more distant receiver.
3.2 Friction
Though friction between particles within a medium causes

energy loss, resulting signal attenuation is generally small.
Since the engineer has little, if any, control over the loss,
this program will not consider them further.
3.3 Loss Across Boundaries Figure 11 Divergence
Losses in acoustic amplitude also occur when

sound waves move from one material into
another. Sound waves must cross many
material interfaces in their trip from the
transmitter to the receiver. The ones
encountered by sound going from the
transmitter to the receiver must be considered.
Sonic energy is initiated in oil which

surrounds the transmitter. The sound must
pass through the neoprene covering and into
the drilling mud. The sonic energy must then
enter the formation. These same interfaces
must be crossed by sound going from the rock
to the receiver. (Figure 12)
Figure 12 Boundaries

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The ability of an interface to transmit sound energy is expressed as the amplitude transmission
coefficient. This coefficient is the ratio of the amplitude of the wave after the interface to its
amplitude before the interface.
The ability of an interface to transmit sonic
energy can be predicted by comparing
properties of the materials on either side of
the interface. The properties to consider are
density ρ and sonic velocity (v).
v ρ = z (acoustic impedance)
Acoustic impedance is analogous to

electrical impedance. Two mediums having
similar impedance will transmit sound
across the interface well, while mediums
having dissimilar impedance will transmit
sound poorly. In plotting impedance ratio
versus amplitude transmission coefficient,
the ratio of rock impedance to that of air is Figure 13 Acoustic Impedance
very great while the amplitude transmission
coefficient is very low; consequently, an
acoustic log cannot be run in an air or gas drilled hole. (Figure 13). If sound waves encounter
gas bubbles enroute to the receiver, they will be severely attenuated.
In comparing the ratio of hard rock to mud,

it can be seen that the transmission
coefficient is higher in soft rocks than in
hard rocks. When running an acoustic
service, higher signal levels can be expected
in soft rocks than in hard rocks. (Figure 14)
Yet another factor causing attenuation is a
rugose borehole. Sound waves are scattered
when striking a rough surface much like the
way light is diffused when passing through
frosted glass. Scattering of sound waves
leaves less energy to go to the receiver.
Figure 14 Signal Strength vs. Density

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3.4 Cancellation
The amplitude of the acoustic signal is also

reduced by phase reduction. In order to
understand this important principle, a look at
the ideal situation will be taken. (Figure 15).
Sound emanates from the instrument in all
directions and progresses through the
formation, to the receiver. The infinite sound
paths are represented in Figure 15 by the four
paths. Each arrives at the receiver at precisely
the same time or in phase. If the instrument is
in the centre of the hole, as it should be, sound Figure 15 Centralisation
rays from each of the paths add algebraically
to form a strong acoustic signal at the
receiver. If the instrument is not in the centre
of the hole, (Figure 16) sound from the
formation near the instrument will arrive
before sound from the more distant side.
These signals will also add algebraically, but
they will be out of phase and the resultant
signal will be smaller and distorted.
The largest signal possible occurs when the

instrument is in the centre of the hole. A
graph of signal amplitude versus amount of
Figure 16 Decentralisation
decentralisation shows that the signal is
reduced by 50% of the centralised value by
displacing the instrument only inches from the
centre of the hole. It is extremely important
that the centralizers be attached to the
acoustic instrument on each run.
A knowledge of the factors that attenuate the

acoustic log will allow the engineer to know
when to expect low amplitude signals and to
recognise the importance of centralizers. This
knowledge will aid him in obtaining good
downhole acoustic data from the acoustic tool.
Be careful not to confuse soft rock formations
with unconsolidated formations!
Figure 17 Decentralisation Effects

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3.5 Critical Spacing
So when all this is said and done one might ask

one’s self: “Why does the sound not go through
the mud instead of through the formation which
is the longer path?”
Actually, the sound goes both ways. The sound
goes through the formation much faster than it
does through the mud and reaches the receiver
by the longer formation route first. This is true
as long as the critical spacing is less than actual
spacing. Critical spacing is the transmitter-to-
receiver spacing at which the fluid signal and
formation signal arrive at the receiver at the
same time. The critical spacing value depends
on the sonde diameter, the diameter of the
borehole, the time of travel through the fluid
and the time of travel through the rock. (Figure
18)
In soft formations when the time of sound Figure 18 Critical Spacing

travel through rock is long and when hole sizes
are large, the critical spacing can become greater than the actual spacing. In this situation, the
fluid arrival can interfere with the acoustic signal. It is possible, with the ECLIPS Acquisition
System, to exclude this fluid arrival using semblance processing, thus reducing or possibly
eliminating all together, this fluid arrival interference.

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4.0 DELTA-T MEASUREMENTS AND THE FIRST ARRIVAL
As has been previously discussed the compressional wave will be the first to arrive at a receiver
and can transverse the formation in the most efficient manner. That is, it is not as effected by
faults, unconsolidated formations or borehole fluid. Since it is so reliable we use the
compressional wave to measure the time of flight of the acoustic waveform in the formation. The
unit of measure for time of flight or ∆ t will be the microsecond (us). ∆ t is calculated using the
following equation:
10 6
∆t =
v
where v is the velocity of the compressional wave in ft/sec.
∆t measurements include the time in the fluid as

well as the time in the formation. The fluid time is
actually measured twice, once from transmitter to
formation and once from formation to receiver. Our
interest is in the formation time so we must find a
way to remove the transit time of the fluid. We
achieve this through a process called depth derived
borehole compensation (DDBC).
Figure 19 Uncompensated ∆t

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To explain the compensated measurement ( ∆ t) recorded with the tool in the

position shown in Figure 20, we must examine the recorded values of transit
time represented by Figures 22 and 21. At tool position given in Figure 22,
the transmitter T is at the same spot receiver R2 will be when
the tool has moved to position shown in Figure 20. At this
point the transit time A (which includes mud and formation
travel times) between T and R1 is recorded and delayed by the
acquisition software. At tool position shown in Figure 21, T
has moved to the spot R1 will occupy shown in Figure 20. At
this point the transit time B between T and R2 is recorded and
also delayed by the acquisition software. When the tool has
moved to position shown in Figure 20, these two
measurements are the equivalent of the transit
times resulting from a second transmitter located
below the receivers. This is true by application of
the theory of reciprocity. The correct,
compensated value of ∆ t is then obtained by
combining the two delayed values of transit time,
Figure 20 A and B, with the current values recorded at the
position shown in Figure 20. If these transit times
(from T to R2 and T to R1 ) are represented by C
and D, respectively, ∆ t is correctly represented by
the following equation:
Figure 21
B− A+C− D
∆t =
2x
where x = the distance between R1 and R2.

Figure 22
Figures 20-22 represent how a DDBHC tool will
perform borehole compensation. The DAL, DAC and MAC tools use 4 receivers with one
transmitter. The process is the same, just more receivers.

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4.1 First Arrival Detection
When the compressional wave arrives and is received by the receiver transducer, it is processed by
the acoustic electronics and sent uphole via the WTS telemetry system for further surface
processing. One of the first things the software must do is determine the location of the first
arrival in the wavetrain so that an accurate ∆t measurement can be made. It must be emphasised
that all user controlled signal processing of the acoustic waveform is performed at the surface by
ECLIPS software.
The gain of the acoustic signal is normally
under AGC control. AGC stands for Automatic
Gain Control. AGC is applied by the downhole
tool. When the signal arrives the processing
software will look for the start of the first
arrival. The first arrival is, by definition, the
first positive peak of the arriving waveform.
The transmitter and receivers are phased so that
this is the case. The first arrival is named the E1
peak. Other peaks of interest are the E2 and E3
peaks. The arriving wavetrain will look similar
to figure 23. Figure 23 Acoustic Signal
The acoustic signal is passed through a threshold detection algorithm. This algorithm is under user
control and resides in software. The first negative portion of the arriving signal that exceeds the
threshold level is deemed to be the first arrival. This will normally be the E2 peak. Note that the E2
peak is not the true first arrival. However, the frequency of the arriving waveform is known so it
is a simple matter for software to back calculate this time of ½ a cycle. A good, true pick pulse
will always be located in the trough of the E2 peak.
Figure 24 First Arrival

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4.2 Cycle Skipping
If the arriving waveform is attenuated to the degree that E2 does not exceed the threshold value, a
cycle skip will occur. This means that the pick pulse will skip forward in the waveform to the E4
pulse, which is the second negative peak in the waveform. Cycle skipping causes incorrect ∆t
calculations. The software is “fooled” into thinking the E4 peak is the E2 peak.
The resulting ∆t calculation will be too high. Causes of cycle skipping can be:
♦ unconsolidated formations
♦ Fractures
♦ rugose borehole
♦ gas cut drilling fluids
♦ excessively large borehole or washouts
♦ weak transmitter or receiver
Figure 25 shows graphically how cycle skipping occurs.
Figure 25 Cycle Skipping

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4.3 Jumping In On Noise
The opposite situation you may find yourself in as a logging engineer will be where the pick pulse
is jumping in on noise. This occurs when noise is picked up by one of the downhole receivers,
amplified by AGC and sent uphole with the rest of the acoustic signature. When the noise is of
sufficient amplitude, it will exceed the threshold value set in software and the pick will jump in
away from the E2 peak and into the first negative noise pulse that exceeds the threshold.
You see, the algorithm is blind. It does not care. It will pick anything that exceeds the set
threshold value.
Jumping in on noise will cause the ∆t calculation to be too low due to the early arrival of the noise
pick. Examples of the causes of jumping in on noise are:
♦ tool body rubbing against the borehole wall

♦ incorrect gain applied to the acoustic signal
♦ weak transmitter cause excessive receiver gains
♦ unconsolidated formations for the same reason as weak transmitter
Figure 26 Jumping In On Noise

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4.4 E2 Splitting
There is one last problem to watch out for while logging with array acoustic type instruments.
Remember when we talked about the importance of centralisation? With array acoustic
instruments, decentralisation will cause a phenomena know as E2 splitting.
If the instrument is parallel

to the borehole but not
centred, arrivals from the
near side will be out of
phase with arrivals from
the far side and cause
cancellation. The
cancellation sometimes
demonstrates itself as E2
splitting. The first arrival
routine may select either
one of the two "sub-
troughs", and can move
back and forth between the
two from sample to sample
on each waveform. Note
that the first arrivals for
TlRl, T1R3 and T1R4 are
picked on the later sub- Figure 27 E2 Splitting
trough, but for T1R2 it is
picked on the first subtrough. This causes a slight change in AT. If present, this condition is most
noticeable if the surface processing filters are turned off. Check for this before starting to record
data; do not record any logs with the filters off. Realising that centralisation is sometimes
difficult, it is recommended that at the very least a constant stand-off be achieved as near as
possible to the centre of the hole.
5.0 APPLICATIONS
The Array Acoustic tool has many applications. What follows is a summary of the most common
applications.
5.1 Porosity
Improved porosity estimates can be determined by using both ∆t shear and ∆t compressional.
The addition of the Acoustic Isolator (usually only used with a MAC tool) increases the
transmitter to receiver offset, further minimising the effects of enlarged boreholes and the invaded
zone.

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5.2 Fracture Detection
Attenuation of the shear wave amplitude in relation to the

compressional wave amplitude may indicate fracturing.
Shear waves cannot propagate across fluid boundaries,
whereas compressional waves can. Fracture Height
Prediction Carbonate reservoirs (dolomite, limestone)
normally have very poor porosity, although when the
formations are naturally fractured, they contain
substantial space for hydrocarbon entrapment.
5.3 Sanding Potential
Shear and compressional velocities are a function of the

bulk modulus, shear modulus, and density of the
formation being measured. Knowledge of formation
density combined with the measured compressional
velocity, and shear velocity may be used to delineate
between the weak and more competent sands.
Figure 28 Shear Wave Attn.
5.4 Permeability Estimation
Several major oil companies and research institutions have been evaluating and quantifying the
relationship of Stoneley wave attenuation to permeability. Western Atlas acoustic measurement
systems offer good low frequency response, with 12 bit resolution on the digitised wavetrains.
This combined with the construction(minimal tool interference) has the potential of providing
more answers to the geophysicists on permeability.
5.5 Seismic Correlation
Seismic surveys directly record wavetrains initiated by a vibration source at the surface and
reflected from acoustic-impedance discontinuities in the subsurface. Although it is possible to
create depth maps with seismic surveys alone, this is not done in practice because of inadequate
knowledge of bed velocities. Other factors also effect the quality of the seismic interpretation: (1)
limited resolution due to the low frequencies used , (2) reception of multiple reflected waves, and
(3) some formation are not good seismic reflectors.

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The interval transit times computed from acoustic tools can be used to generate a synthetic
seismogram to help resolve the uncertainties and ambiguities in the analysis of the surface seismic
survey, verify reflection events, and relates seismic features to geological structure at accurately
known depths. Both compressional and shear interval transit times are available to help the
geophysicists in analysing the seismogram.
5.6 Through Casing Acoustic Measurements
Utilisation of the array of receivers, with the extended offsets (6 - 19 ft) allows our acoustic
system to quantify formation compressional and shear wave data through casing even in
conditions with marginally bonded casing.
5.7 Abnormal Formation Pressures
Formations having abnormally high fluid pressures are

often overlain by overpressured shales, which have an
excess of pore water. The pore water that would normally
be squeezed out by the overburden pressure has become
trapped. The acoustic travel time is greater in these shales
when compared to normally pressured shales at the same
depth. Thus travel time may be used to predict the
likelihood that underlying sands are overpressured before
they are drilled. Although the same effect may be noticed
in density and gamma ray logs, the acoustic travel time log
is the preferred means of identifying overpressure zones.
6.0 WELLSITE LOG INTERPRETATIONS
6.1 Porosity Determination

Figure 29 Over Burden
Acoustic travel time measurements of subsurface
formations can be interpreted in terms of formation porosity. A unit volume of rock through
which the acoustic compressional wave travels is influenced by the total make-up of that rock.
The measurement recorded on the log is the sum of the effect of the solid part or framework of the
rock ("rock matrix") and the fluid filled pore space.
J.R. Wyllie proposed and experimentally supported a mathematical relationship between φ

and ∆ t. The empirical equation is called the time-average formula or time-sharing formula.
Travel, ∆ t, is equal to the sum of time in the fluid and time in the rock matrix (as above). The
time spent in the rock matrix is proportional to the amount of rock present and the time spent in
the fluid is proportional to the amount of fluid present. In other words this is a ratio.

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The time read from the log may be represented with the following equation:
t log = t f φ + t ma (1 − φ )
t log = t f φ + t ma − t ma φ
t log − t ma = t f φ − t ma φ
t log − t ma = (t f − t ma )φ
∴
t log − t ma
φ=
t f − t ma
Before this equation can be Fluid Vf t

used to compute porosity it ft./sec. usec/ft
is necessary to have values Water with 20% NaCl 5,300 189
for the rock matrix and the Water with 15% NaCl 5,000 200
formation fluids. With the Water with 10% NaCl 4,800 208
exception of gas, most Water (pure) 4,600 218
fluids encountered in Oil 4,200 238
subsurface formations do Methane 1,600 626
not vary greatly in velocity.
Air 1,100 910
Listed in Table I are some
average fluid velocity Table 1 Velocities Of Various Fluids
values.
The radius of investigation of the acoustic tools are quite shallow. In a porous formation where
the invasion is moderate or deeper, the mud filtrate is normally the dominating fluid that
influences the Acoustic measurements. For most purposes an average velocity for this fluid can
be assumed to be approximately 5300 feet/microsecond. However, if the formation of interest is
not invaded, or if extremely shallow invasion exists, then consideration must be given to the type
of fluid occupying the pore space within the region influencing the Acoustic ∆ t measurements.
The velocity of the rock matrix is the other parameter to which a value must be assigned before
the time average equation can be used in the determination of porosity. The interval travel time in
the rock matrix ( ∆t ma ) will vary considerably depending upon the formation type. To be more
specific, ∆t ma changes with variations in the chemical composition of the rock, and also with its
compaction, which is related to depth and confining pressure.
The selection of the proper matrix velocity to he used in the determination of porosity is
dependent upon having knowledge of the lithology of the section being investigated. Table 2 lists
typical matrix velocities for some of the more common formations encountered.

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It should be understood that these are average values and there are many mitigating circumstances
involved. Therefore, the matrix velocities listed in Table 2 may vary somewhat from one area to
another.
6.2 Carbonate Vma ∆t ma

Formations Formation ft /sec. ∆t sec/ft.
Sandstone:
The various porosity Unconsolidated ≥ 17,000 58.8 or more
ranges exhibited by
Semi-consolidated 18,000 55.6
different types of
Consolidated 19,000 52.6
formations may be used to
Limestone 21,000 47.6
separate and classify rock
Dolomite 23,000 43.5
types into groups
depending on primary Shale 6,000-16,000 167-62.5
porosity. Carbonates Calcite 22,000 45.5
(limestone and dolomites) Anhydrite 20,000 50.0
and some of the more Granite 20,000 50.0
highly compacted Gypsum 19,000 52.6
sandstone that commonly Quartz 18,000 55.6
display porosity values of Salt 15,000 66.7
less than 15% can be Table 2 Velocities Of Various Minerals
classified into one group.
This group of formations, falling into the lower range of porosity values, is almost always deeply
invaded. The flushed zone containing mud filtrate primarily influences the acoustic travel time
recorded opposite these formations. The original formation fluids almost never influence it,
except in residual amounts.
Although dispersed shale or clay particles may he present in carbonates, their influence is usually
small enough so that only minor correction to acoustic travel time is required. If the lithology can
be reasonably discerned, the determination of porosity for this group of formations can often be
accurately derived from the time average formula, provided the porosity distribution is fairly
uniform.
It is generally accepted that the dolomitization of a limestone that occurs after lithofaction will
produce additional porosity. In this lithology combination, it should be expected that increasing
porosity is related to a greater degree of dolomitization. The progressive change from limestone
to dolomite as porosity increases has the same effect as decreasing the value of At,,,, in the
porosity equation. The tendency for the acoustic travel time to increase due to the amount of fluid
present in the pore space as the porosity increases is partly counteracted by this corresponding
decrease in the acoustic travel time of the rock matrix. As a result the acoustic response from the
formation composite often indicates that the porosity contains a fluid with an acoustic travel time
that is lower than actually exists in the formation.

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To derive porosity from the acoustic travel time through such formations by the normal procedure
would produce erroneous results. A special charts have been developed based primarily on
empirical data to accommodate these formation composites. These charts can be found in the
Western Atlas Logging Services Chart Book.
Secondary porosity in carbonates in the form of

fractures and vugs provides an interesting
application for the acoustic measurements.
Experimental work and field experience indicate
that acoustic wave velocities are influenced only
slightly, if at all, by irregular and fracture porosity.
For this reason, the acoustic tool may be run for the
determination of the primary or intergranular
porosity. This result can be compared to porosity
derived from one of the nuclear devices which
measure gross porosity. The difference, of course,
is an approximation of the irregular or fracture
porosity.
You might ask “Why is this so?” Remember

acoustic impedance? Every time an acoustic signal
must cross a boundary, an impedance is associated Figure 30 Primary Porosity
with that boundary. Since acoustic signals will take
the path of least resistance, they will attempt to avoid as many acoustic interfaces as possible. See
figure 30.
6.3 Compacted Sands
Sandstone reservoirs with porosity’s ranging from approximately 15% to 25% are normally well
cemented. This type of formation is found in the deeper horizons along the coastal regions and at
the shallower depths of the inland provinces. To determine if the sandstone under consideration is
of this formation grouping, adjacent massive shale sections are examined. As a general rule of
thumb, if the adjoining shales display acoustic velocities greater than 10,000 feet/second (or
specific travel times of 100 microseconds/foot or less) the sand is compacted.
To obtain a value of porosity for a compacted sand which is shale free and water bearing or
invaded to a moderate depth, the time average equation may he used to produce acceptable results
in almost all cases. If the sand contains shale or dispersed clay particles, or is hydrocarbon
bearing and invaded to only a very shallow depth, corrections to the basic log data must be made
before reasonable porosity values can be calculated. These corrections will be found in the
Western Atlas Logging Services Chart Book.

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6.4 Unconsolidated Sands
Unconsolidated sands provide one of the most difficult media through which an acoustic wave
must travel. This rock type may be visualised as an assemblage of individual sand grains in
contact with one another without the benefit of cementation or appreciable compaction. This
framework does not offer the necessary rigidity to completely support the acoustic wave, and for
this reason there is a tendency for cycle skipping to occur.
When the pore space of an unconsolidated sand body is fluid filled, much of the acoustic signal is
transmitted through that fluid. When the pore space contains gas the effect becomes most
pronounced. This phenomenon has been observed in acoustic measurements which have shown
travel times through sands on the order of 180 to 200 microseconds/foot. Dispersed shale or clay
particles within such a sand offer a degree of rigidity which may reduce the tendency for cycle
skipping.
The result of this is that the travel times recorded through unconsolidated sands are unusually
high. When these log values are substituted into the time average formula they result in porosity
values which are greater than the true porosity of the formation. In order to obtain true porosity
from acoustic logs run opposite unconsolidated and relatively uncompacted sands, it is usually
necessary to make an empirical correction to the original expression. Unconsolidated sands are
most common in the shallower formations.
6.5 Fluid Corrections
Invasion is generally at a minimum in highly porous formations. Occasionally in these

formations, the filtrate invasion is so shallow that the measured acoustic travel time is influenced
by the original formation fluids. If this occurs in a hydrocarbon bearing section, the increased
travel time in the fluid phase will cause a porosity to be calculated which is greater than that
actually present.
An empirical relationship between the acoustic response in a clean water bearing formation and
the response in an identical formation with shallow invasion containing oil or gas has been
established. Of necessity, the corrections to be made when this condition is recognised are purely
arbitrary and based strictly on this limited empirical data. For an oil bearing section, the apparent
porosity ( φ ) should he multiplied by a factor of approximately 0.9. The proper correction factor to
be used must be based strictly on experience. To correct for the presence of gas, the apparent
porosity should he multiplied by a factor of about 0.7.
As previously discussed, the SP will be reduced in magnitude by the presence of shale. If oil or
gas is also present the reduction will tend to be even greater. For this reason, it is not appropriate
to apply corrections for both shaliness and fluid content. The application of the alpha correction
will tend to adjust for the presence of both.

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Acoustic Waves and Tools: Baker Atlas Montrose Training Centre

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Acoustic Waves and Tools

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Figure 1 Acoustic Services

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2.0 THEORY (Or everything you always tried to avoid in Physics)

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2.1 Piezoelectric Transducers

The piezoelectric property of a transducer is

The inside of a transmitting piezoelectric

Note: There are different frequencies for

The receiving transducer is physically the

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2.2 Snell’s Law

The angle of refraction depends on the speed

n1 sin ϑ1 = n2 sin ϑ2 or v 2 sin ϑ1 = v1 sin ϑ2

ϑ1 is the angle of incidence and ϑ2 is the angle

Figure 3 Angle of Incidence s

where s = speed of sound in air and

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Figure 4 Critical Angle of Incidence

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2.3 Wave Theory

In acoustic logging the transverse wave is known

Figure 5 Wave Types

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Elasticity is the property of matter

where F/A is the force per unit area, dl/l,

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A displacement temporarily imposed upon an elastic medium produces an oscillating motion of

2.5 Borehole and Formation Waves

♦ Reflected compressional wave

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and for the critical angle:

VCB = Compressional velocity of the borehole fluid.

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2.6 Compressional Waves

G = shear modulus of elasticity,

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For example, in the case of a non-porous limestone,

Therefore, compressional wave velocity in a limestone matrix is calculated as:

= 640,000 cm/sec or 21,000 ft/sec

∆t = 1,000,000/21,000 = 47.6 µs/ft

2.7 Shear Waves

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Shear wave velocity in a non-porous limestone will be, accordingly:

= 338,000 cm/sec or 11,100 ft/sec

The slowness for shear waves in limestone matrix is 90 µs/ft.

2.8 Leaky Mode

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2.10 Reverberant Waves

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2.11 Stoneley Wave

2.12 Subsurface Wave

Particles in solids, liquids, and gasses oppose

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Figure 10 Wave Types In a Composite Wave

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3.0 MORE ACOUSTIC PHYSICS

3.1 Divergence of Energy