Continuing Education on Ophthalmic Lens Design

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Ophthalmic Lens Design

Printer Friendly Version By Darryl Meister
Introduction
Focal Power Introduction
Lens Form
Base Curve Selection This course will present the fundamental principles of ophthalmic lens design, including a review
Mechanical Factors of Lens of lens aberrations, corrected curve theory, and asphericity. This is a technical, intermediate
Form
level course intended for dispensing opticians, laboratory technicians, and paraoptometric
Optical Factors of Lens Form
Tangential and Sagittal Errors personnel. An understanding of both basic mathematics and basic optics is required.
Oblique Astigmatism
Power Error Focal Power
Other Lens Aberrations
The ability of a lens to refract and focus light—by either converging or diverging it—is referred to
Best Form Lens Design
Vision and Lens Design as its focal power or refractive power. The focal power of a lens is simply equal to the
Asphericity net effect of its front and back surfaces. When a refractionist writes a prescription for an
Aspheric Lens Design
ophthalmic lens, he/she is specifying the focal power of the lens. The focal power of a lens, in
Atoric Lens Design
Return to CE Courses diopters, is given by:*
Focal Power = Front Surface Power + Back Surface Power
Or:
P=F+B
Where (P) is focal power in diopters, (F) is the front surface power in diopters, and (B) is the
back surface power in diopters. Both focal power and surface power are measured in units
called diopters (abbreviated 'D').
For example, consider a lens with a 6.00 D front curve and a -4.00 D back curve. The focal
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power (P) is equal to F + B = 6.00 + (-4.00) = +2.00 D.
* This is an approximation to keep our math simple; the formula becomes
a bit more complex when lens thickness is considered.
Lens Form
The relationship between the front and back surface curves of a lens is referred to as the lens
form (or lens profile). A lens with a given focal power can be produced by many different
lens forms, as long as the sum of the front and back surface powers remains constant—or at
least nearly so (neglecting thickness). A given lens power can be produced with an almost
endless variety of lens forms, as long as the sum of the front and back surface powers remains
equal to the desired focal power.
Historically, spectacle lenses fall into either one of two general categories of lens form:
● Bent lenses: Modern lens form are generally bent, or meniscus—which means
"crescent-shaped." Bent lenses use convex front curves and concave back curves.
● Flat lenses: The earliest lens forms were flat. For plus lenses, flat lenses use either
convex curves for both the front and back (i.e., bi-convex lenses), or one convex curve
and one plano (plano) curve (i.e., plano-convex lenses). For minus lenses, flat lenses
use either concave curves for both the front and back (i.e., bi-concave lenses), or one
concave curve and one plano (plano) curve (i.e., plano-concave lenses).

Base Curve Selection
The form of a given lens is determined by "base curve selection." The base curve of a lens
is the surface curve that serves as the basis or starting point from which the remaining curves
will be calculated. For semi-finished lens blanks, the base curve will be the factory-finished
curve, which is generally located on the front of the blank. The surfacing laboratory is
ultimately responsible for choosing the appropriate base curve for a given prescription (or focal
power) before surfacing the lens. For finished lens blanks, which have already been fabricated
to the desired power, the curves are chosen beforehand by the manufacturer.
Manufacturers typically produce a series of semi-finished lens blanks, each with its own base
curve. This "base curve series" is a system of lens blanks that increases incrementally in
surface power (e.g., +0.50 D, +2.00 D, +4.00 D, and so on). Each base curve in the series is
used for producing a small range of prescriptions, as specified by the manufacturer.
Consequently, the more base curves available in the series, the broader the prescription range
of the product. Manufacturers make base curve selection charts available that provide the
recommended prescription ranges for each base curve in the series.
A Typical Base Curve Selection Chart

Power Range Base Curve
+8.00 D to +4.75 D 10.00 D
+2.25 D to +4.50 D 8.00 D
+2.00 D to -2.00 D 6.00 D
-2.25 D to -4.00 D 4.00 D
-4.25 D to -7.00 D 2.50 D

-7.25 D to -12.00 D 0.50 D
The base curve of a lens may affect certain aspects of vision, such as distortion and
magnification, and wearers may notice perceptual differences between lenses with different
base curves. Consequently, some practitioners may specify "match base curves" on a new
prescription. Some feel that these perceptual differences should be minimized by employing the
same base curves when the wearer obtains new eyewear. This would conceivably make it
easier for particularly sensitive wearers to "adapt" to their new eyewear.
However, changes in the spectacle prescription will also create unavoidable perceptual
differences. Moreover, the wearer will generally adjust to these perceptual differences within a
week or so. If the same base curve is continually used as the wearer's prescription changes,
which might necessitate a change in the manufacturer's recommended base curve, the
peripheral optical performance of the lens may suffer as a consequence. When duplicating
lenses of the same lens material, design, and power, matching base curves should not pose a
problem—and is a recommended practice. Otherwise, unless the wearer has shown a previous
sensitivity to base curve changes, you should use the manufacturer's recommended base
curve when changing the prescription, or when using different lens materials and/or designs.
There are some exceptions to this rule, though they are rare. Some wearers with particularly
long eyelashes may have been given steeper base curves at some point in order to prevent
their lashes from rubbing against the back lens surface when their vertex distance—or the
distance between the lens and the eye—is small, though this practice is very uncommon.
Additionally, some wearers with a significant difference in prescription between the right and left
eyes may suffer from aniseikonia, or unequal retinal image sizes, and require unusual base
curve combinations in order to minimize the magnification disparity produced by the difference
in lens powers. In these situations, a discussion with the prescriber may be in order before
changing base curves.
Since the power of a lens can be produced by an almost infinite range of lens forms, why
choose one base curve over another? There are two principal factors that influence the
selection of base curves (and their resulting lens forms):
● Mechanical factors
● Optical factors
Mechanical Factors of Lens Form

The maximum thickness of a lens, for a given prescription, varies with the form of a lens. Flatter
lens forms are slightly thinner than steeper lens forms, and vice versa. Since the lenses are
thinner, they also have less mass—making them lighter in weight as well. In addition to lens
thickness, varying the lens form will also produce significant differences in the plate height,
or overall bulge, between lenses of the same power. Essentially, plate height is the height of a
lens as measured from a flat plane.
Plus lenses with flatter plate heights do not fall out of frames as easily, which is especially
important with large or exotic frame shapes. In addition, flatter plate heights are also more
cosmetically pleasing than steeper, bulbous ones—particularly in plus powers.
A reduction in plate height will also provide a significant reduction in the magnification
associated with plus lenses. Since a flatter plate height brings the back surface closer to the
eye, the minification associated with minus lenses is also reduced slightly. This gives the
wearer's eyes a more natural appearance through the lenses.
We can evaluate the maximum thickness, plate height, and weight for a range of lens forms to
demonstrate the effects of lens form upon cosmesis for a given prescription. The table, below,
represents a range of +4.00 D lenses in hard resin plastic, edged to a 70-mm diameter and a 1-
mm minimum edge thickness.
+4.00 D Lenses
Base Curve Center Plate Weight
10.00 D Base 6.9 mm 15.3 mm 21.7 g
8.00 D Base 6.3 mm 11.7 mm 19.5 g

6.00 D Base 6.0 mm 8.7 mm 18.3 g

4.00 D Base 5.9 mm 6.0 mm 17.7 g
Note how the lenses become gradually thinner, flatter, and lighter in weight as the base
curve is reduced—or flattened. The table, below, represents a range of -4.00 D lenses in hard
resin, edged to a 70-mm diameter and a 2-mm minimum center thickness.
-4.00 D Lenses
Base Curve Edge Plate Weight
6.00 D Base 8.7 mm 16.4 mm 25.4 g
4.00 D Base 7.8 mm 12.8 mm 24.0 g
2.00 D Base 7.3 mm 9.7 mm 23.2 g
0.00 D Base 7.0 mm 7.0 mm 22.8 g
Again, the lenses become gradually thinner, flatter, and lighter in weight as the base curve is
reduced. In summary, flatter lens forms provide the following mechanical and cosmetic
benefits:
● Flatter (less "bulge")
● Thinner center thickness (plus) or edge thickness (minus)
● Lighter in weight
● Less magnification (or minification)
● Better frame retention (in plus powers)
Optical Factors of Lens Form
We've just discussed the obvious mechanical and cosmetic advantages of flatter lens forms
(with their flatter plate heights). However, the principal impetus behind lens form selection is
optical performance. Base curves are typically chosen to provide a wide field of clear vision. It
turns out that the form of a lens will have a significant impact on the clarity of peripheral vision
experienced by the wearer. Although vision through the center of a lens will be relatively sharp
no matter what the form, vision through the periphery of a lens will vary greatly as a function of
lens form.
Peripheral vision generally requires the wearer to look away from the optical center of the lens.
As a result, the wearer's line of sight makes an angle to optical axis of the lens, which is the
imaginary line passing through the optical center. Consequently, we often refer to the peripheral
performance of a spectacle lens as its off-axis or off-center performance. During peripheral
and dynamic vision, the line of sight makes an angle to the optical axis of up to 30° or more as

the wearer observes objects in the visual field.
The focal power formula, P = F + B, adequately describes the behavior of the lens near its
optical center, within an area referred to as the paraxial region, since incident rays of light
make very small angles to its optical axis. These small angles result in a well-behaved refraction
of the incident light rays, allowing us to simplify Snell's law of refraction using a mathematical
simplification known as a first-order approximation. Light rays refracted through the
paraxial region will form a sharp point focus at the desired focal point of the lens and ultimately
upon the retina of the eye.
However, away from the paraxial region, the incident rays of light make larger and larger
angles to the optical axis, and the first-order approximation no longer accurately describes the
refraction of light rays. Incident rays of light are no longer brought to a single point focus at the
desired focal point of the lens, as described by our simple focal power formula. This error in
focus is referred to as a lens aberration.
Lens aberrations act as errors in power from the desired prescription, and can degrade the
image quality produced by the lens as the wearer gazes away from—or obliquely to—its optical
axis. There are six different lens aberrations that can affect the quality of peripheral vision
through a spectacle lens:
● Oblique Astigmatism
● Power Error
● Spherical Aberration

● Coma
● Distortion
● Chromatic Aberration
The first five lens aberrations are referred to as the monochromatic aberrations, since
they occur independently of color. They are also referred to as the Seidel aberrations, since
Ludwig Von Seidel first derived equations for assessing these aberrations using a third-order
approximation (which is more accurate than the first-order approximation). We will
concentrate mainly on oblique astigmatism and power error, which are the two primary lens
aberrations that must be reduced or eliminated when designing ophthalmic lenses.
The sixth lens aberration, chromatic aberration, is a consequence of the dispersive properties of
the actual lens material, and is not a function of lens design.
You can also think of a lens aberration as the failure of a lens, which has otherwise been
made correctly, to produce a sharp focus at the desired focal point of the lens as the eye rotates
behind it in order to view objects in the periphery. The focal power of the lens is prescribed to
produce a focus at the far-point of the eye. The far-point (FP) of the eye is conjugate to the
retina, meaning that rays of light from a lens that come to a focus at the far-point will also be
brought to a focus at the retina once refracted by the eye. Hence, the far-point represents the
ideal focal plane of the spectacle lens.
As the eye rotates vertically and horizontally behind the lens, the far-point moves with the eye at
a fixed distance from its center of rotation (C). This movement describes an imaginary
spherical surface, known as the far-point sphere, which represents the ideal locus of focal
points for the lens as the eye rotates to look through it. Lens aberrations result when light
refracted by a lens fails to come to a focus at the far-point sphere.

Tangential and Sagittal Errors
In our discussion of lens aberrations, we will often refer to the tangential and sagittal errors from
the desired power. The tangential plane of the lens represents the meridian of the lens that
radiates out from the optical center; these planes are analogous to the spokes of a bicycle
wheel. The sagittal plane of the lens represents the meridian of the lens that is perpendicular
to the tangential plane (i.e., at a 90° angle to it) at any point; these planes circumscribe the
optical center.
When rays of light from an object strike the lens obliquely, the principal refraction of these rays
occurs through the tangential and sagittal meridians, much like the principal refraction of a
sphero-cylindrical lens occurs through its principal power meridians. The tangential error is

the error from the desired focus through the tangential meridian of the lens as a result of lens
aberrations. The sagittal error is the error from the desired focus through the sagittal
meridian of the lens.
Oblique Astigmatism
Oblique astigmatism is an aberration that results when rays of light from an object in the
periphery strike the lens obliquely, and are refracted differently by the tangential and sagittal
meridians of the lens. When a lens suffers from oblique astigmatism, the tangential meridian (T)
of the lens refracts incident light more than the sagittal meridian (S) perpendicular to it.
Consequently, incident light from an off-axis object point is brought to a focus at two different
locations (i.e., the tangential focus and the sagittal focus). The image of the object point is no
longer focused to a single point, but rather separated into two focal lines instead.

Note that two focal lines are produced from each single object point by the tangential and
sagittal meridians of the lens, instead of a single point focus. The dioptric difference between
these two focal lines is known as the astigmatic error of the lens. Oblique astigmatism is similar
to the normal ocular astigmatism for which refractionists prescribe cylinder power. However,
oblique astigmatism only occurs when the wearer looks through the lens at an angle (hence,
"oblique") or through the peripheral regions of the lens. Since it is an astigmatic focusing error,
this error is similar in effect to unwanted cylinder power in a prescription.
When light is incident upon a surface at an angle, it produces such an astigmatic focus. Since
light is refracted by two surfaces as it passes through a lens, the total oblique astigmatism
produced by the lens depends upon the net astigmatism produced at each surface.
Consequently, oblique astigmatism is dependent upon the form of the lens—that is, the
relationship between the front and back curves. Certain lens forms will produce more oblique
astigmatism than others.
In terms of our tangential and sagittal errors, the astigmatic error is given by:
Astigmatic Error = Tangential Error - Sagittal Error
In addition to the oblique astigmatism that occurs while viewing off-axis objects in the
periphery, you can introduce oblique astigmatism by simply tilting a lens, since this also places
the line of sight at a significant angle to the optical axis of the lens. This is sometimes referred to
as "astigmatism due to lens tilt." The oblique astigmatism induced by lens tilt can be minimized
by ensuring that the optical axis of the lens passes through the center of rotation (C) of the eye.
We can accomplish this by manipulating the relationship between the pantoscopic tilt—

which is lens tilt toward the cheeks—and the height (H) of the wearer's pupil center above the
optical center (OC) of the lens according to the following rule-of-thumb:
Ensure 1 mm of Optical Center Drop (H) for Every 2° of Pantoscopic Tilt
Power Error
In the absence of oblique astigmatism, a spectacle lens brings light to a focus across a curved
image plane referred to as the Petzval surface. Curvature of the field is an aberration
that results from the difference in focus between a flat focal plane and the curved collection of
actual focal points on the Petzval surface. This aberration is a concern for optical devices that
require a flat image plane, such as cameras. However, recall that the ideal image plane of the
eye, the far-point sphere, is also curved. Unfortunately, the Petzval surface is generally flatter
than the far-point sphere. Power error is an aberration that results from the difference in
focus between the Petzval surface (PS) and the far-point sphere (FPS) of the eye.

Power error is a result of the fact that the focal plane of the lens for off-axis object points
departs from the far-point sphere of the eye, even when the lens is free from oblique
astigmatism. In the presence of power error, light from an object point may be refracted to a
single point focus by the tangential (T) and sagittal (S) meridians, but this point focus does not
lie on the far-point sphere (FPS). The dioptric difference between the actual focal point of the
lens and its desired focal point is the power error of the lens. Power error is a spherical-like
focusing error, and is similar in effect to unwanted sphere power in a prescription. This is in
contrast to the astigmatic error produced by oblique astigmatism.
In the presence of oblique astigmatism, there is no single focal point but rather two focal lines.
In this case, the power error is equal to the average dioptric difference between the two
astigmatic focal lines and the desired focal point of the lens, just as the spherical

equivalent is equal to the average power of a sphero-cylindrical prescription.
In terms of our tangential and sagittal errors, the power error is given by:
Power Error = (Tangential Error + Sagittal Error) ÷ 2
For example, consider a +4.00 D lens that produces a power of +5.00 D through the tangential
meridian and a power of +4.50 D through the sagittal meridian at some distance from the optical
center. This represents a tangential error of 5.00 - 4.00 = +1.00 D and a sagittal error of 4.50 -
4.00 = +0.50 D. The astigmatic error is equal to 1.00 - 0.50 = 0.50 D, while the power error is
equal to (1.00 + 0.50) / 2 = +0.75 D.
Other Lens Aberrations
Spherical aberration and coma occur because the focal power of a lens effectively
increases away from its optical axis. As a result, rays of light refracted by the peripheral regions
of the lens are focused closer to the lens than light rays refracted through the central, paraxial
region. Spherical aberration affects rays of light from objects situated near the optical axis, while
coma affects rays of light from objects away from the optical axis. The small pupil aperture of
the eye minimizes these aberrations by restricting the region of the lens that admits rays of light
into the eye at any one time. Conseqently, these two aberrations are generally not a concern for
ophthalmic lens designers.
Distortion does not affect the focal quality of an image, but rather its size and shape—or its
geometric reproduction. Unlike oblique astigmatism and power error, distortion does not
produce a focal error that produces blur. Just as the focal power of a lens effectively increases

away from its optical axis, so does the magnification (or minification) produced by the lens. This
excess magnification (or minification) causes objects to appear curved or misshapen—
particularly in higher powers. Since it cannot be eliminated using conventional base curve
ranges, distortion is usually not a consideration for ophthalmic lens design.
A lens free from distortion exhibits orthoscopy (or no distortion). The excess minification in
the periphery of minus lenses generally produces barrel distortion, while the excess
magnification of plus lenses generally produces pin-cushion distortion.
Best Form Lens Design
The peripheral vision through a lens that suffers from these lens aberrations is blurred, and
the wearer experiences a limited field of clear vision. For conventional lenses, which utilize
base curves with spherical surfaces instead of aspheric surfaces, base curve selection is one
of the primary tools used to reduce these aberrations.
Recall that amount of oblique astigmatism produced by a lens depends on the relationship
between the front and back surfaces (or lens form). When the curves of lens are chosen in an
attempt to produce a lens form with a minimum of lens aberrations, the resulting lens is often
referred to as a corrected curve lens design. (This term refers to the fact that the base
curve has been chosen in order to correct certain aberrations.) Since properly designed
corrected curve lenses will have the least amount of the most detrimental aberrations, they are
also called best form lens designs.
In 1804, when W. Wollaston experimented with different lens forms to improve peripheral

vision. He created a series of lens forms that neutralized the astigmatism produced at the front
surface of the lens using the astigmatism produced at the back surface. Essentially, the form
was chosen such that the astigmatism produced at the two surfaces canceled each other out.
He referred to his lens experimental series as "periscopic," meaning "look around." However,
his lens forms turned out to be too steep for practical production as spectacle lenses. In 1898,
F. Ostwalt developed another system of lenses free from oblique astigmatism, which were much
flatter than Wollaston's.
In 1904, M. Tscherning demonstrated mathematically that there were in fact two recommended
or "best form" spherical best curves for each lens power: a steeper series and a flatter series.
Wollaston's lenses had been based upon the steeper solutions to Tscherning's formula, while
Ostwalt's had been based upon the flatter solutions. Tscherning's ellipse is the locus of
points that plot out the two recommended front curves for each lens focal power. The flatter
Ostwalt branch of the ellipse serves as the basis for modern best form lenses.
Tshcerning's ellipse indicates the optimum spherical base (or front) curve to use for each lens
power in order to reduce or eliminate lens aberrations. For instance, the recommended best
form base curve for a lens with +2.00 D of focal power is roughly 8.00 D. After examining
Tscherning's ellipse, we can draw a few conclusions:
● Tscherning's ellipse recommends relatively steep base (front) curves for many
prescriptions. Unfortunately, the "best form" base curves necessary to provide good
peripheral vision also produce relatively steep, thick lens forms. Flatter lens forms, while
thinner and lighter, generally produce significant lens aberrations, including large

astigmatic and spherical power errors. Consequently, best form lens designs, while
optically superior to flatter lens forms, are cosmetically inferior to them.
● The focal power limit of the ellipse is around +7.50 D; above this power, lens aberrations
cannot be eliminated without using special, aspheric lens designs.
● According to Tscherning's ellipse, each individual lens power should be made using a
separate base curve. Early best form lenses utilized this approach, which required a
massive and costly inventory of lens blanks. As stated earlier, manufacturers now group
small ranges of prescriptions together upon common lens blanks (that is, base curves) to
minimize inventory requirements and keep costs down.
This results in somewhat of an optical compromise, but the errors are usually negligible.
Nonetheless, the more base curves a given base curve series has, the more precisely the
aberrations can be minimized.
It is generally not possible to eliminate all lens aberrations completely. A lens that is entirely free
of oblique astigmatism will generally have a small amount of residual power error remaining,
and vice versa. It is up to the lens designers of each individual manufacturer to determine which
of the two aberrations (or combination thereof) they plan to reduce or eliminate.
Some manufacturers may choose to eliminate oblique astigmatism completely, some may
choose to eliminate power completely, and others may choose to eliminate or minimize a
combination of the two aberrations. Each of these separate approaches utilizes a slightly
different lens form and base curve for each focal power. Consequently, different manufacturers
may have slightly different base curve recommendations for their lenses.

The recommended "best form" base curve for a given prescription can be approximated using
Vogel's formulas. For plus (+) prescription powers, Vogel's formula is:
Base Curve = Sphere Rx + 6.00
For minus (-) prescription powers, Vogel's formula is:
Base Curve = Sphere Rx / 2 + 6.00
When the prescription also calls for cylinder, use the spherical equivalent—or Sphere +
Cylinder / 2. For example, consider a prescription of -4.50 DS -1.00 DC × 180. The spherical
equivalent would be -4.50 + (-1.00) / 2 = -5.00. And, since this is a minus prescription, the
recommended base curve would be -5.00 / 2 + 6.00 = 3.50.
Vision and Lens Design
Lens aberrations manifest themselves as departures from the desired prescription. For instance,
the lens aberrations produced by "flattening" a lens form (i.e., using a base curve that is
flatter than recommended) increase the spherical focal power perceived by the wearer in the
periphery of the lenses and induce unwanted cylinder power (astigmatism). The result is a
change in the effective power of the prescription away from the optical axis (or optical center) of
the lens, leaving a "residual" refractive error.
The errors from the desired prescription produced by these lens aberrations result in blurred
vision in the periphery and a restricted field of clear vision. Consequently, an imprudently
flattened lens design, while thinner and lighter in weight than a "best form" lens design,
produces inferior peripheral vision. The best form lens design, on the other hand, offers a

wide, clear field of vision.
The prescription errors caused by lens aberrations will increase with the following factors:
● Distance from the optical axis/center: The farther the wearer looks into the
peripery of a lens, the greater the potential for lens aberrations—and the more rapidly
those aberrations will increase.
● Departure from best form design: The farther the lens form departs from the
recommended "best form," the greater the potential for lens aberrations.
● Strength of the prescription: The stronger (plus or minus) the focal power of the
lens, the greater the potential for lens aberrations.
To summarize, the goal of best form lens design is to determine the most "optically appropriate"
base curve for a given focal power (or range of focal powers). This means selecting a base
curve that will produce a lens form free from the lens aberrations that can blur vision through
the periphery of the lens. This process is referred to as lens design or optimization. When
the doctor prescribes a certain prescription, he/she is really specifying the focal power "on-axis."
The focal power "off-axis," however, is ultimately controlled by the design of the finished
lens.
Asphericity
Best form lenses, although optically superior to flatter lens forms, are somewhat steep, thick,
and heavy for many focal powers—at least compared to the flatter lens forms. Does this mean
that providing good optics precludes the ability to provide good cosmesis? Fortunately, lens

designers have another tool at their disposal when designing lenses: asphericity.
Put simply, an aspheric surface is a surface that departs from being perfectly spherical.
Aspheric base curves are surfaces that vary gradually in surface power from the center towards
the edge, in a radial fashion (meaning the asphericity is the same in every meridian of the lens—
like the spokes of a bicycle wheel).
Unlike a spherical surface, which has the same curvature in any direction across the entire
surface, a typical aspheric surface becomes progressively flatter (or, in some cases, steeper)
away from the center of the lens—i.e., the tangential meridian of the lens. However, the
aspheric surface changes very little around the circumference of the lens, which is the sagittal
meridian of the lens perpendicular to the tangential meridian.
This difference in surface curvature (and power) produces surface astigmatism, which
means that the surface literally produces cylinder power away from its center. Furthermore,
this surface astigmatism is used to counteract and neutralize the oblique astigmatism produced
by looking through the lens off-axis. Essentially, the difference in surface power on an
aspheric surface cancels out the difference in off-axis focal power produced through the lens
by oblique astigmatism. An aspheric surface departs more and more from a spherical surface
away from its center, just as oblique astigmatism would normally increase more and more when
looking away from the center.
To produce a three-dimensional aspheric surface, an aspheric curve is rotated about an axis
of symmetry. As a result, aspheric surfaces are "rotationally-symmetrical." The central region
of an aspheric surface will be nearly spherical. Away from this central region, the amount of

surface astigmatism smoothly increases towards the periphery of the lens.
In most cases the difference in surface height—or sagitta—between an aspheric curve and a
conventional spherical curve results in a thinner profile for aspheric lenses. This means that a
lens using an aspheric surface will generally be thinner than a lens using a spherical surface of
the same power. Moreover, it is possible to exaggerate the asphericity of a surface in order to
maximize cosmesis, though this will generally result in excessive levels of unwanted
astigmatism. Some cataract lenses, such as the Welsh 4-Drop, employed such an approach.
Many aspheric surfaces are made by rotating special curves, called conic sections, around
their axis of symmetry. Conic sections include the parabola, the hyperbola, the oblate ellipse,
and the prolate ellipse. More general—and sophisticated—aspheric surfaces are described by
polynomial equations of the form:
Z = A2×X2 + A4×X4 + A6×X6 ...
where Z is the height of the surface at a distance X from its center and the coefficients A2, A4,
A6 ... control the shape of the aspheric surface. This type of surface offers more flexibility to the
lens designer than a simple conicoid surface. For instance, the designer may choose to
minimize power errors out to a certain point and then exaggerate asphericity to improve
cosmesis beyond that point.
Aspheric Lens Design
Asphericity allows lens designers to flatten a lens form in order to improve cosmesis, without
sacrificing opical performance. The lens aberrations produced by using flattened lens forms are

simply eliminated using the surface astigmatism of the aspheric design. While aspheric lenses
do not provide better vision than best form lenses, they do provide equivalent vision in a
flatter, thinner, and lighter lens.
Aspheric lenses were originally employed to provide acceptable vision in high-plus, post-
cataract lenses that exceeded the +7.50 D limit of Tscherning's ellipse. Today, aspheric
surfaces are mainly used to allow lens designers to produce flatter, thinner lenses with the
superior optical performance of the steeper corrected curve, or best form, lenses.
Aspheric lenses allow lens designers to produce lenses that are considerably flatter, thinner,
and lighter in weight than conventional best form lenses. It is interesting to note that aspheric
surfaces produce thinner lenses for two reasons:
● Aspheric lenses generally use flatter front curves, which reduce the center thickness in
plus lenses and the edge thickness in minus lenses.
● The geometry of an aspheric surface also provides additional thickness reduction. Some
aspheric lenses are even designed solely for cosmesis, and actually use more asphericity
than what is optically required. This produces a thinner lens at the expense of reduced
optical performance.
As with the base curve of a best form lens, the amount or degree of asphericity will depend
upon the focal power of the lens. Additionally, the surface (that is, front or back) upon which the
asphericity has been applied will also make a difference:
● Plus lenses. If asphericity is applied to the front surface of a plus lens, the surface will
become flatter away from the center. If it is applied to the back surface, the surface will
become steeper away from the center.
● Minus lenses. If asphericity is applied to the front surface of a minus lens, the surface
will become steeper away from the center. If it is applied to the back surface, the surface
will become flatter away from the center.
Ideally, aspheric lenses should be optimized for each individual focal power. In practice,
however, small ranges of powers are grouped upon common aspheric base curves—just like
with best form lenses. Nevertheless, asphericity gives lens designers the freedom to optimize
just about any base (front) curve for the chosen focal power—or range of powers. (Generally,
flatter base curves are chosen for cosmesis.)

This is unlike best form lens design, which requires a specific front curve that conforms to
Tscherning's ellipse in order to provide good vision for a given focal power. Consequently,
before the appropriate aspheric design can be determined, the lens designer must first decide
upon the base curve value of the lens blank as well as its intended focal power—or range of
focal powers.
Aspheric base curves free lens designers from the constraints of conventional (best form)
lenses, which use simple spherical base curves. Lenses can be made flatter, thinner, and
lighter, while maintaining the same excellent optical performance. In summary, aspheric lenses:
● Utilize a non-spherical surface with surface astigmatism to neutralize the oblique
astigmatism produced by off-center refraction
● Provide both the visual advantages of best form lenses and the cosmetic advantages of
flat lenses
● Do not necessarily provide better optical performance than best form lenses, but simply
provide comparable performance without the restrictions imposed by best form base
curve selection
The table, below, represents a comparison of lens designs for a +4.00 D prescription in hard
resin plastic, edged to a 70-mm diameter and a 1-mm minimum edge thickness. Note that the
best form lens design provides good peripheral optics (that is, very little oblique astigmatism off-
center), while the flattened lens design (that is, made using a flatter base curve) provides a
thinner, lighter, and flatter profile with poor optics. Finally, the aspheric lens design provides
both good optics and the thinnest, lightest, and flattest lens profile.

Comparison of Lens Designs for +4.00 D

Best Form Flattened Aspheric
Front Curve 10.00 D 6.00 D 6.00 D
Center Thickness 6.9 mm 5.9 mm 5.0 mm
Weight 21.7 g 17.7 g 14.6 g
Plate Height 15.3 mm 6.0 mm 5.1 mm
Obl. Astigmatism 0.07 D 0.98 D 0.07 D
Of course, in some cases it may be desirable to use base or front curves that are actually
steeper than "best form" curves. For instance, "wrap" sunwear frames often necessitate highly
curved and steeply tilted lenses. Typically, non-standard base curves with a nominal front
curve of roughly 8.00 D are chosen for lenses glazed into these frames, resulting in
compromised optical performance for many prescriptions. In this case, asphericity can be
applied to regain the optical performance, normally afforded by flatter "best form" lenses,
using a steeper front curve.
Atoric Lens Design
Tscherning’s ellipse demonstrates that each prescription power requires a unique front curve
or lens design in order to achieve optimal optics. A single, rotationally-symmetrical lens surface
cannot completely eliminate the power errors produced simultaneously by both principal
meridians of sphero-cylindrical lenses with cylinder power. Consequently, standard best form
and aspheric lens designs with prescribed cylinder power represent an optical compromise.
Lenses must therefore be designed to optimize peripheral optical performance for either the
sphere power meridian, the cylinder power meridian, or some power in between the two.
It is possible, however, to eliminate the power errors associated with both the sphere power
and cylinder power meridians of sphero-cylindrical lenses using a non-rotationally-symmetrical
surface in which the asphericity varies from meridian to meridian. Atoric surfaces have two
planes of symmetry corresponding to the principal meridians of the lens, each with a unique
amount of asphericity to minimize the peripheral optical aberrations that would otherwise occur
through that power meridian. Unlike the change in curvature away from the center of an
aspheric lens surface, which remains the same through every radial meridian of the lens, the
change in curvature away from the center of an atoric lens surface varies from meridian to
meridian.

Since any atoricity is most often applied to the toric surface of the lens, atoric can be thought of
as a departure from a standard toric surface, just as aspheric refers to a departure from a
spherical surface. When the prescription calls for significant cylinder power, the field of clear
vision is often restricted through one or more planes of the lens, since a traditional base
curve or aspheric lens design can only correct the optical aberrations associated with one
power meridian. Atoric lens designs, on the ohter hand, provide unrestricted fields of clear
vision, regardless of the power meridian of the lens, since the optical aberrations associated
with each power meridian are corrected individually.

Continuing Education on Ophthalmic Lens Design

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Continuing Education on Ophthalmic Lens Design

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OptiCampus.

com - Continuing Education Course

This is Google's cache of http://www.opticampus.com/cecourse.php?url=lens_design/. It is a snapshot of the page as

Ophthalmic Lens Design

Focal Power = Front Surface Power + Back Surface Power

called diopters (abbreviated 'D').

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power (P) is equal to F + B = 6.00 + (-4.00) = +2.00 D.

* This is an approximation to keep our math simple; the formula becomes

a bit more complex when lens thickness is considered.

equal to the desired focal power.

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Base Curve Selection

used for producing a small range of prescriptions, as specified by the manufacturer.

recommended prescription ranges for each base curve in the series.

A Typical Base Curve Selection Chart

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-7.25 D to -12.00 D 0.50 D

easier for particularly sensitive wearers to "adapt" to their new eyewear.

changing base curves.

selection of base curves (and their resulting lens forms):

Mechanical Factors of Lens Form

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lens as measured from a flat plane.

cosmetically pleasing than steeper, bulbous ones—particularly in plus powers.

wearer's eyes a more natural appearance through the lenses.

mm minimum edge thickness.

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6.00 D Base 6.0 mm 8.7 mm 18.3 g

resin, edged to a 70-mm diameter and a 2-mm minimum center thickness.

● Flatter (less "bulge")

● Thinner center thickness (plus) or edge thickness (minus)

● Less magnification (or minification)

● Better frame retention (in plus powers)

Optical Factors of Lens Form

performance of a spectacle lens as its off-axis or off-center performance. During peripheral

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the wearer observes objects in the visual field.

simplification known as a first-order approximation. Light rays refracted through the

upon the retina of the eye.

focus is referred to as a lens aberration.

through a spectacle lens:

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approximation (which is more accurate than the first-order approximation). We will

aberrations that must be reduced or eliminated when designing ophthalmic lenses.

the actual lens material, and is not a function of lens design.

ideal focal plane of the spectacle lens.

refracted by a lens fails to come to a focus at the far-point sphere.

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Tangential and Sagittal Errors

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meridian of the lens.

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this error is similar in effect to unwanted cylinder power in a prescription.

astigmatism than others.

Astigmatic Error = Tangential Error - Sagittal Error

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optical center (OC) of the lens according to the following rule-of-thumb:

Ensure 1 mm of Optical Center Drop (H) for Every 2° of Pantoscopic Tilt

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contrast to the astigmatic error produced by oblique astigmatism.

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