Quality of irrigation water

Whatever may be the source of irrigation water viz., river, canal, tank, open well
or tube well, some soluble salts are always dissolved in it. The main soluble constituent
in water are Ca, Mg, Na and K as cations and chloride, sulphate bicarbonate and
carbonate as anions. However ions of other elements such as lithium, silicon, bromine,
iodine, copper, cobalt, fluorine, boron, titanium, vanadium, barium, arsenic, antimony,
beryllium, chromium, manganese, lead, selenium phosphate and organic matter are also
present. Among the soluble constituents, calcium, sodium, sulphate, bicarbonate and
boron are important in determining the quality of irrigation water and its suitability for
irrigation purposes. However other factors such as soil texture, permeability, drainage,
type of crop etc., are equally important in determining the suitability of irrigation water.
The following are the most common problems that result from using poor quality water.

1. Salinity
If the total quantity of salts in the irrigation water is high, the salts will
accumulate in the crop root zone and affect the crop growth and yield. Excess salt
condition reduces uptake of water due to high concentration of soil solution. The most
influential water quality guideline on crop productivity is the water salinity hazard as
measured by electrical conductivity (ECw). The primary effect of high ECw water on crop
productivity is the inability of the plant to compete with ions in the soil solution for water
(physiological drought). The higher the EC, the less water is available to plants, even
though the soil may appear wet. Because plants can only transpire "pure" water, usable
plant water in the soil solution decreases dramatically as EC increases.
Table 1. Suggested criteria for irrigation water use based upon conductivity.
Classes of water Electrical Conductivity
(dS/m)*
Class 1, Excellent ≤0.25
Class 2, Good 0.25 - 0.75
1
Class 3, Permissible 0.76 - 2.00
Class 4, Doubtful2 2.01 - 3.00
2
Class 5, Unsuitable ≥3.00
*dS/m at 25ºC = mmhos/cm
1
Leaching needed if used.
2
Good drainage needed and sensitive plants will have difficulty obtaining stands.
Table 2. Potential yield reduction from saline water for selected irrigated crops.1
% yield reduction
Crop 0% 10% 25% 50%
ECw2
Barley 5.3 6.7 8.7 12
Wheat 4.0 4.9 6.4 8.7
3
Sugarbeet 4.7 5.8 7.5 10

1
Alfalfa 1.3 2.2 3.6 5.9
Potato 1.1 1.7 2.5 3.9
Corn (grain) 1.1 1.7 2.5 3.9
Corn (silage) 1.2 2.1 3.5 5.7
Onion 0.8 1.2 1.8 2.9
Beans 0.7 1.0 1.5 2.4
1
Adapted from “Quality of Water for Irrigation.” R.S. Ayers. Jour. of the Irrig. and Drain.
Div., ASCE. Vol 103, No. IR2, June 1977, p. 140.
2
ECw = electrical conductivity of the irrigation water in dS/m at 25oC.
3
Sensitive during germination. ECw should not exceed 3 dS/m for garden beets and
sugarbeets.
2.Sodium Hazard
While ECw is an assessment of all soluble salts in a sample, sodium hazard is defined
separately because of sodium's specific detrimental effects on soil physical properties.
The sodium hazard is typically expressed as the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). This
index quantifies the proportion of sodium (Na+) to calcium (Ca++) and magnesium (Mg++)
ions in a sample. Calcium will flocculate (hold together), while sodium disperses (pushes
apart) soil particles. This dispersed soil will readily crust and have water infiltration and
permeability problems. General classifications of irrigation water based upon SAR values
are presented in Table 4.
meq/L = mg/L divided by atomic
weight of ion divided by ionic charge
(Na+=23.0 mg/meq, Ca++=20.0
++
mg/meq, Mg =12.15 mg/meq)

Table 4. General classification of water sodium hazard based on SAR values.

SAR values Sodium hazard of water Comments
Use on sodium sensitive crops must be
1-9 Low
cautioned.
Amendments (such as gypsum) and leaching
10-17 Medium
needed.
18-25 High Generally unsuitable for continuous use.
≥26 Very High Generally unsuitable for use.
However, many factors including soil texture, organic matter, crop type, climate,
irrigation system and management impact how sodium in irrigation water affects soils.
Additionally, at the same SAR, water with low ECw (salinity) has a greater dispersion
potential than water with high ECw. Sodium in irrigation water can also cause toxicity
problems for some crops, especially when sprinkler applied. Crops vary in their
susceptibility to this type of damage as shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Susceptibility ranges for crops to foliar injury from saline sprinkler water.

2
 Na or Cl concentration (mg/L) causing foliar injury
Na concentration <46 46-230 231-460 >460
Cl concentration <175 175-350 351-700 >700
Apricot Pepper Alfalfa Sugarbeet
Plum Potato Barley Sunflower
Tomato Corn Sorghum
Foliar injury is influenced by cultural and environmental conditions. These data are
presented only as general guidelines for daytime irrigation. Source: Mass (1990) Crop salt
tolerance. In: Agricultural Assessment and Management Manual. K.K. Tanji (ed.). ASCE,
New York. pp. 262-304.
3.Chloride
Chloride is a common ion in Colorado irrigation waters. Although chloride is essential to
plants in very low amounts, it can cause toxicity to sensitive crops at high concentrations
(Table 6). Like sodium, high chloride concen-trations cause more problems when applied
with sprinkler irrigation (Table 6). Leaf burn under sprinkler from both sodium and
chloride can be reduced by night time irrigation or application on cool, cloudy days. Drop
nozzles and drag hoses are also recommended when applying any saline irrigation water
through a sprinkler system to avoid direct contact with leaf surfaces.
Table 6. Chloride classification of irrigation water.
Chloride (ppm) Effect on Crops
Below 70 Generally safe for all plants.
70-140 Sensitive plants show injury.
141-350 Moderately tolerant plants show injury.
Above 350 Can cause severe problems.
Chloride tolerance of selected crops. Listing in order of increasing tolerance: (low
tolerance) dry bean, onion, carrot, lettuce, pepper, corn, potato, alfalfa, sudangrass,
zucchini squash, wheat, sorghum, sugar beet, barley (high tolerance). Source: Mass (1990)
Crop Salt Tolerance. Agricultural Salinity Assessment and Management Manual. K.K.
Tanji (ed.). ASCE, New York. pp 262-304.
4.Boron
Boron is another element that is essential in low amounts, but toxic at higher
concentrations (Table 7). In fact, toxicity can occur on sensitive crops at concentrations
less than 1.0 ppm. Colorado soils and irrigation waters contain enough B that additional
B fertilizer is not required in most situations. Because B toxicity can occur at such low
concentrations, an irrigation water analysis is advised for ground water before applying
additional B to crops.
Table 7. Boron sensitivity of selected Colorado plants (B concentration, mg/ L*)
Sensitive Moderately
Moderately Tolerant Tolerant
Sensitive
0.5-0.75 0.76-1.0 2.1-4.0 4.1-6.0
1.1-2.0
Peach Wheat Carrot Lettuce Alfalfa

3
Onion Barley Potato Cabbage Sugar beet
Sunflower Cucumber Corn Tomato
Dry Bean Oats
Source: Mass (1987) Salt tolerance of plants. CRC Handbook of Plant Science in
Agriculture. B.R. Cristie (ed.). CRC Press Inc.
*Maximum concentrations tolerated in soil water or saturation extract without yield or
vegetative growth reductions. Maximum concentrations in the irrigation water are
approximately equal to these values or slightly less.

5. Miscellaneous
Excessive Nitrogen in irrigation water causes excessive vegetative growth and
leads to lodging and delayed crop maturity. White deposits on fruits or leaves may occur
due to sprinkler irrigation with high bicarbonate water.

Classification of irrigation water quality

Quality of EC (m.mhos pH Na (%) Cl (me/l) SAR

water / cm)
Excellent 0.5 6.5 – 7.5 30 2.5 1.0
Good 0.5 – 1.5 7.5 – 8.0 30 – 60 2.5 – 5.0 1.0 – 2.0
Fair 1.5 – 3.0 8.0 – 8.5 60 – 75 5.0 – 7.5 2.0 – 4.0
Poor 3.0 – 5.0 8.5 – 9.0 75 – 90 7.5 – 10. 4.0 – 8.0
Very poor 5.0 – 6.0 9.0 – 10. 80 – 90 10.0 – 12.5 8.0 – 15.0
Unsuitable >6.0 > 10 >90 >12.5 >15
(SAR – Sodium Adsorption ratio)

Factors affecting suitability of waters for irrigation:

The suitability of particular water for irrigation is governed by the following
factors.

1. Chemical composition of water (TSS, pH; CO3, HCO3, Cl, So4, Ca, Mg, Na, and
B)
2. Total concentration of soluble salts or salinity (EC)
3. Concentration of sodium ions, in proportion to calcium and magnesium or
sodicity (SAR);
4. Trace element boron may be toxic to plant growth, if present in limits beyond
permissible
5. The effect of salt on crop growth is of osmotic nature. If excessive quantities of
soluble salts accumulate in the root zone the crop has extra difficult in extracting
enough water from salty solution, thereby affecting the yields adversely.
6. Besides this, total salinity depends of the extent to which exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP) of soil increase as a result of adsorption of sodium from water.
This increase depends on sodium percentage.

4
 7. Soil characteristics like structure, texture, organic matter, nature of clay minerals,
topography etc.
8. Plant characteristics like tolerance of plant varies with different stages of growth.
The germinating and seedling stages are usually the most sensitive to salinity.
9. Climatic factors can modify plant response to salinity. Tolerance to saline water
irrigation is often greater in winter than in the summer. Rainfall is the most
significant factor for the leaching of salts from the plant root zone. Temperature
also plays a vital role.
10. Management practices also play great role. Wherever saline water is used for
irrigation, adoption of management practices which allow minimum salt
accumulation in the root zone of the soil is necessary.

The primary parameters that have to be considered to ensure effective irrigation

management for salt control are the water requirement of crop and quality of irrigation
water. Correct irrigation should restore any soil water deficit, to control salt levels.

Management of poor quality water

1. Application of greater amounts of organic matter such as FYM, compost etc., to

the soil to improve permeability and structure.
2. Increasing the proportion of calcium, through addition of gypsum (CaSO4) to the
irrigation water in the channel, by keeping pebbles mixed pure gypsum bundles in
the irrigation tank.
3. Mixing of good quality water with poor water in proper proportions so that both
the sources of water are effectively used to maximum advantage.
4. Periodical application of organic matter and raising as well as incorporation of
green manure crops in the soil.
5. Irrigating the land with small quantities of water at frequent intervals instead of
large quantity at a time.
6. Application of fertilizer may be increased slightly more than the normally
required and preferably ammonium sulphate for nitrogen, super phosphate and Di
Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) for phosphorus application
7. Drainage facilities must be improved
8. Raising of salt tolerant crops such as cotton, ragi, sugar beet, paddy, groundnut,
sorghum, corn, sunflower, chillies, tobacco, onion, tomato, garden beans,
amaranthus and lucerne.

Use of poor quality water

Besides the salinity and alkalinity hazard of water, some industrial effluents and
sewage water are also problem water that can be reused by proper treatment. The
complex growth of industries and urbanization (Urban development) leads to massive
increase in waste water in the form of sewage and effluent. Waste water supplies not
only nutrient but also some toxic elements such as total solids of chloride, carbonate,
bicarbonate, sulphate, sodium chromium, calcium magnesium, etc., in high concentration.

5
Besides this the effluent or waste water creates BOD (Bio chemical Oxygen Demand)
These waste water when used for irrigation leads to surface and sub surface source of
pollution due to horizontal and vertical seepage.

Projected waste-water Utilization

It is estimated that 287,000 million m3 of waste water can be reusable during 2000
A.D. Hence this waste water can be properly treated as follows
 Dilute with good quality water in the ratio of 50:50 or 75:25
 Alternate irrigation with waste water and good quality water
 Treat the effluent water through fill and draw tanks, lime tank, equalization tank,
settling tank, sludge removal tank, aerobic and anaerobic treatment tanks etc.,

WATER MANAGEMENT FOR PROBLEM SOILS

When rocks and minerals under go weathering process large quantities of soluble
salts are formed. In humid regions these salts are washed down to the ground water and
to the sea. But in arid and semi arid regions they accumulate in the soil. Excessive
irrigation and poor water management are the two chief causes of water logging and salt
accumulation. An accumulation of salts in soil leads to unfavourable soil water-air
relationship and effect the crop production.

The following are the main causes which leads to development of salty soils
(salinity or alkalinity)
1. Arid climate
About 25% of earth surface is arid in which salt accumulation is a common
problem. In India about 25 million hectare is salt affected with different degree of
degradation.
2. High subsoil water table
When the water table is with in capillary range, the water containing soluble salts
rises to surface. When the water evaporates the salts are deposited as encrustation. It is
estimated that in Punjab annually about 50,000 acres becomes saline because of raising
water table.

3. Poor drainage
Due to poor drainage accumulation of water leads to water logging condition
which leads to salt accumulation.

4. Quality of irrigation water

Irrigation water containing more than permissible quantities of soluble salts with
sodium carbonate and bicarbonates make the soil salty.
5. Inundation with sea water
In coastal area, periodical inundation of land by sea water during high tides makes
soil salty. Besides deep bore wells are also the reason for saline soils.
6. Nature of parent rock minerals
The saline nature of parent rock minerals leads to salt accumulation
7. Seepage form canals
The continuous seepage leads to salt accumulation.

6
Classification of problem soils
The soil problems can also be divided into
a) Chemical b) Physical
Soil Chemical Problem
The salt affected soils can be classified based on their ESP, pH and EC as follows
ESP (%) EC mhos/cm pH
Saline < 15 >4 < 8.5
Saline alkali > 15 >4 > 8.5
Alkali/sodic > 15 <4 > 8.5
Reclamation of Saline soil
Leaching or flushing with good quality of water provided there will not be water
logged condition i.e. good drainage system should be there to flush water.
Reclamation of Alkali soil
By converting exchangeable sodium into soluble salts by adding the following
amendments.
1. Calcium chloride
2. Calcium sulphate (Gypsum)
3. Sulphuric acid
4. Ferrous sulphate
5. Aluminum sulphate
Reclamation of Saline alkali soil
The reclamation of these soils is similar to that of alkali soils. First step is to
remove the exchangeable sodium and then the excess salts and sodium are to be leached
out. Commonly salt affected soils are referred as problem soils as indicated above.
Further, based on pH value it can also be grouped as acid soils where the pH value is less
than 7.
Management practices for chemical problems of soil
Reclamation of saline and alkali soils are not complete unless proper remedial
measures are under taken to restore the soil fertility and structure of the soil. The
following are the important management practices to overcome there problems.

 The saline soil can be easily improved with leaching of salts by using of god
quality water and by providing good drainage systems.
 Application of gypsum would improve the permeability of soil by making good
soil aggregates
 In acidic soils, lime application should be adequate and excessive leaching
should be avoided
 Salt resistant or saline resistant species should be selected for cultivation
 Application of amendments viz gypsum and press mud is found to suppress the
sodium and chromium content in plant and soil.
 Growing resistant crops like ragi cotton, barley and rice can be advocated.
 Growing green manure crops like sunnhemp, daincha and kolinji can be
advocated.
 Growing resistant varieties like CoC 771 in sugarcane Co 43 in rice may be made.
 Adoption of drip irrigation for possible crop is also recommended to over come
soil physical and chemical problems.

7
  Liberal application of FYM
 Application of green manure
 Excess phosphorous and application
 Proper drainage to keep the soil without adverse effect to plant systems.
Soil physical problems
Very coarse, very clayey texture, shallow depth and encrustation in soil surface
are the possible physical problems. Too frequent irrigation in clayey soils with very high
water retention results in poor drainage, water logging and crop damage. Excess
irrigation or heavy rain create hardening of soil surface in red latritic soils with high Fe
and Al hydroxides and low organic matter. This leads to poor germination, restriction of
shoot and development and slow entry of water into the soil profile.
Water management practices for physical problem of soil
• In light soils shallow depth of water with more frequency should be adopted.
• To increase the infiltration rate of clay type soil, breeding of soil by mixing with
coarse textured soil or tank silt at the rate of 50 tones per hectare is advocated.
• Organic wastes like crop residue, farm waste, coir pith, filter cake, etc., at the rate
of 20 tones per hectare once in every year can be applied.
• Poorly drained clay soils can be improved by providing tile drains and trenches
intermittently.
• To make the soil more permeable and to overcome poor drainage, addition of
organic wastes or sandy soil at the rate of 20 tones per ha or 50 tones per ha
respectively is advocated.
• Tank silt or heavy soil application is the only way to increase soil depth and water
holding capacity. Besides growth shallow rooted crop is advisable.
Incorporating organic matter and adding montmorilonite clay-containing silt could
alleviate the encrustation problem.
References:
R.S. Ayersan,D.W. Westcot ,Water quality for agriculture Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations Rome, 1985 © FAO, ISBN 92-5-102263-1

Water management under controlled environment cropping

Introduction ;

The irrigation on controlled environment is one of the most critical of all

production practices. This controlled environment cropping includes growing of crops by

8
providing all growth factors with specific quantity here, we grow the crops without
influence of surroundings .this can be achieved by growing crops under polyhouses or
green houses . To provide conditions for optimum plant growth it is essential to become
familiar with the factors that influence soil moisture. Water is the "universal solvent" in
plant cells and is involved in many biochemical processes. Growth processes will slow,
and lower yield and quality will result if the plant is without water even for a very short
period.Water is taken into the plant through the root system and exits as water vapor
through the leaves by a process called transpiration. Along the way, water is involved in
the many processes contributing to growth and yield. As water leaves the plant, the
evaporation process cools the plant. Only about 2% of the water that enters the plant is
consumed in biochemical reactions. The majority is transpired.Optimum management of
other cultural factors such as disease control is critical to providing for adequate water
uptake. Diseased roots, or flooded roots lead to reduced water uptake and wilting.

Irrigation Systems:

In most cases, water is applied to the upper surface of the media in which plants
are grown. This water may be applied by means of an overhead sprinkler, a drip or trickle
irrigation system, by hand using a hose or similar device, or some combination of these
delivery systems.

Overhead sprinklers; In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or

more central locations within the greenhouse and distributed by overhead high-pressure
sprinklers or guns. A system utilizing sprinklers, sprays,

or guns mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-

set irrigation system. Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotors and are
driven by a ball drive, gear drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate
in a full or partial circle. Overhead sprinklers and hand watering have a tendency to
"waste" water and also wet the foliage, which increases the potential for diseases and
injury

9
Drip or trickle systems:

Drip or trickle systems are the most efficient and provide greater control over the
amount of water applied. Also, since the foliage does not become wet there is a reduced
potential for diseases and injury. Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation,
functions as its name suggests. Water is delivered at or near the root zone of plants, drop
by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient method of irrigation, if managed
properly, since evaporation and runoff are minimized. In modern agriculture, drip
irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing evaporation, and is also
the means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known as fertigation. Deep percolation,
where water moves below the root zone, can occur if a drip system is operated for too
long of a duration or if the delivery rate is too high. Drip irrigation

Methods range from very high-tech and computerized to low-tech and labor-
intensive. Lower water pressures are usually needed than for most other types of systems,
with the exception of low energy center pivot systems and surface irrigation systems, and
the system can be designed for uniformity throughout a field or for precise water delivery
to individual plants in a landscape containing a mix of plant species. Although it is
difficult to regulate pressure on steep slopes, pressure compensating emitters are
available, so the polyhouse does not have to be level. High-tech solutions involve
precisely calibrated emitters located along lines of tubing that extend from a
computerized set of valves. Both pressure regulation and filtration to remove particles are
important. The tubes are usually black (or buried under soil or mulch) to prevent the
growth of algae and to protect the polyethylene from degradation due to ultraviolet light.
But drip irrigation can also be as low-tech as a porous clay vessel sunk into the soil and
occasionally filled from a hose or bucket.

Sub-irrigation:

10
 Subirrigation also sometimes called seepage irrigation has been used for many
years in field crops in areas with high water tables. It is a method of artificially raising the
water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the plants' root zone. Sub-
irrigation is also used in commercial greenhouse production, usually for potted plants.
Water is delivered from below, absorbed upwards, and the excess collected for recycling.
Typically, a solution of water and nutrients floods a container or flows through a trough
for a short period of time, 10–20 minutes, and is then pumped back into a holding tank
for reuse. Sub-irrigation in greenhouses requires fairly sophisticated, expensive
equipment and management. Advantages are water and nutrient conservation, and labor-
saving through lowered system maintenance and automation. It is similar in principle and
action to subsurface drip irrigation.

Capillary mats:

Capillary mats are popular in the retail nursery industry and with many home gardeners.
The uniquely designed mats provide automated irrigation to a variety of plants, conserve
water, and reduce the need for labor-intensive hand-watering.

Made with absorbent fabric lined with polyethylene film on the bottom and covered on
top with perforated polyethylene or similar material, the mats help minimize evaporation
while allowing water to move from the bottom of the mat up into the containers on top.

One advantage of capillary mats is that plants of different size and water requirement can
be placed on the same mat without under- or over- watering individual containers. Other
reasons mats are preferred to overhead sprinklers are that mats leave less water on the
floor of the retail area, and staff don't have to spend as much time watering plants. The
downside: capillary mats can be an expensive system to set up and maintain.

Amount of Irrigation Water to Apply

The amount of irrigation water to apply is perhaps more important than how and
when to irrigate. A general rule of thumb to follow in irrigating greenhouse crops is to
apply 10- 15% more water than the container will hold. This facilitates leaching at each

11
irrigation and reduces the potential for the accumulation of soluble salts. Of course the
rate of irrigation must be low enough to allow the water to percolate through the growing
media as opposed to over flowing the top of the container. When using soluble fertilizers
in the irrigation water it is especially important to allow at least 10-15% for leaching to
avoid salt build-ups.

Frequency of Irrigation

Frequency of irrigation is largely determined by existing environmental

conditions. This frequency of irrigation means that growers must consider the physical
characteristics of their growing media (i.e. water holding capacity and drainage) very
carefully. Particularly where soluble salts are a problem. Often nutritional problems, such
as magnesium and micronutrient deficiencies, arise as the result of excess leaching. In
these cases special attention must be given to media amendments and nutritional regimes
to provide for optimum plant growth.

Condition of the Growing Media

The condition of the growing media is very important in determining irrigation

efficiency. Most of the peat moss, bark and other organic constituents used in soilless
growing media have hydrophobic or water repelling characteristics. When excessively
dry, these materials have a tendency to be difficult to "wet" and therefore require careful
attention during irrigation. In some cases a "wetting agent" may be required to provide
adequate absorption. The key to avoiding problems associated with wetting is not to pot
plants in excessively dry media or allow media to dry out between irrigations. Again,
these problems may become more acute in the presence of soluble salts.

Water Quality

Water quality largely influences irrigation practices. As previously mentioned, the

presence of soluble salts requires that growing media be well drained and that at least 10-
15% more water than the container will hold be applied at each irrigation. It is also
advisable to reduce the wetting and drying of the media between irrigations to avoid
increases in relative concentrations of soluble salts. Be sure to have your water quality
tested on a regular basis to monitor these conditions.

Fertigation system in green houses

In fertigation system an automatic mixing and dispensing unit is installed which

consists of three systems pump and a supplying device. The fertilizers are dissolved
separately in tanks and are mixed in a given ratio and supplied to the plants through
drippers.

Fertilizers

12
 Fertilizer dosage has to be dependent on growing media. Soil less mixes have
lower nutrient holding capacity and therefore require more frequent fertilizer application.
Essential elements are at their maximum availability in the pH range of 5.5 to 6.5. In
general Micro elements are more readily available at lower pH ranges, while macro
elements are more readily available at pH 6 and higher.

Forms of inorganic fertilizers

Dry fertilizers, slow release fertilizer and liquid fertilizer are commonly used in
green houses

Slow release fertilizer

They release the nutrient into the medium over a period of several months. These
fertilizer granules are coated with porous plastic. When the granules become moistened
the fertilizer inside is released slowly into the root medium. An important thing to be kept
in mind regarding these fertilizers is that, they should never be added to the soil media
before steaming or heating of media. Heating melts the plastic coating and releases all the
fertilizer into the root medium at once. The high acidity would burn the root zone.

Liquid fertilizer

These are 100 per cent water soluble. These comes in powdered form. This can be
either single nutrient or complete fertilizer. They have to be dissolved in warm water

Fertilizer Application Methods

1. Constant feed

Low concentration at every irrigation are much better. This provides continuous
supply of nutrient to plant growth and results in steady growth of the plant. Fertilization
with each watering is referred as fertigation

2. Intermittent application

Liquid fertilizer is applied in regular intervals of weekly, biweekly or even

monthly. The problem with this is wide variability in the availability of fertilizer in the
root zone. At the time of application, high concentration of fertilizer will be available in
the root zone and the plant immediately starts absorbing it. By the time next application is
made there will be low or non existent. This fluctuation results in uneven plant growth

13
rates, even stress and poor quality crop.

General problems of fertigation

Nitrogen tends to accumulate at the peripherous of wetted soil volume. Hence,

only roots at the periphery of the wetted zone alone will have enough access to Nitrogen.
Nitrogen is lost by leaching and denitrification. Since downward movement results in
permanent loss of NO3 –N, increased discharge rate results in lateral movement of N and
reduces loss by leaching.

Phosphorous
It accumulates near emitter and P fixing capacity decides its efficiency. Low pH near the
emitter results in high fixation.

Potassium
It moves both laterally and downward and does not accumulate near emitter. Its
distribution is more uniform than N&P.

Micronutrients
Excepting boron, all micronutrients accumulates near the emitter if supplied by
fertigation. Boron is lost by leaching in a sandy soil low in organic matter. But chelated
micronutrients of Fe, Zn can move away from the emitter but not far away from the
rooting zone.

14
 Reference ;

http://www.wwdmag.com/%20Greenhouse-Water-Management-Practices-
Greenhouse-Practices-Increase-Need-for-Water-Treatment-Equipment-article1752

Water management in different agro climatic regions of India

Introduction:
Water is essential for the existence and survival of any life form. Hence human settlements the
world over have thrived so long they had enough water for consumption and growing crops that yield
food for community. The Indian subcontinent has witnessed many such early settlements that devised
their own systems of water harvesting, which could be either from surface water or ground water. So
since that time India has different water management practices at different zone due to it’s heterogeneity
in climate, soil, crops. For irrigation in India, different sources of water are available, such as, rain,
underground waters, rivers, springs, etc. Rain water is considered as one of the most ideal sources of
irrigation if in case it is timely as well as adequately received. But, in this country, rainfall is uncertain,
uneven and prominently seasonal. Rainfall in India varies in different regions of the country. Another
factor that badly affects irrigation in India is its long dry period. Thus, irrigation is necessary in those
areas of the country, which are likely to suffer from droughts as they receive very less rainfall.
This was leads to different water management practices in various zones.
Irrigation in India has been a high priority in economic development since 1951; more than 50 percent
of all public expenditures on agriculture have been spent on irrigation alone. The net area under
irrigation expanded from 22.6 million hectares in 1950 to 57 million hectares in 2008 .this development
is not uniform in all the parts of our country it was also made wide variation in water management
practices in India. Planning commission(1976) classified our country into 15 agro climatic zones by
studying water management in each zone we can understand different irrigation practices in India
Agro-climatic zones of India

15
 1.Western Himalayan region;
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand. This is the portion to the north of India
spanning from Jammu and Kashmir valleys and going in a south-eastern direction through Himachal
Pradesh and ending in Uttaranchal. This region forms the upper catchments of the river Indus and its
five tributaries, viz, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Jhelum and Chenab in addition to those of the rivers Yamuna and
Ganga. Generally, terraced agriculture is commonly practiced on the slopes, and paddy cultivation in the
valleys that separate the sub-Himalayan ranges from the middle mountains. Total cultivated area is 1
961 000 hac of which wheat area covers 765 500 hac. In this cultivated area the rainfed area is 1 326
000 hac and irrigated area of this region is 635 000hac. Annual rainfall of this region ranges from 165
mm to 2 000 mm. Average yield production [kg/ha] of this region for rainfed and irrigated crops is 1200
kg/hac and 1800 kg/hac respectively. Major irrigation method is Border strip and wild flooding. This
region is mostly mountain area so it has very steep slope land it will heads more amount of soil erosion
and major soil type of this region is Brown hill alluvial
Here has been an extensive system of water harvesting in the western Himalayas. Farmers have
had a major tradition of building canals aligned roughly with contours to draw water from hill streams or
springs. These canals are known as kuhls, which vary from 1 to 15 kms. Generally, a kuhl would have a
trapezoidal cross section, 0.1 to 0.2 square meters in area, and usually conveys a discharge of around 15
to 100 litres per second. A single kuhl can irrigate an area of 80 to 400 ha through distributaries or by
flooding. The irrigated land, being situated on hill slopes, is terraced. Apart from these water channels,
another water harvesting structure-the ponds is fairly common in the Jammu region. However, these
ponds now suffer from growing encroachment of rising population at water inlets and from siltation. In
the Nainital and Dehradun districts, channels called Guhls are used extensively. Here streams are
dammed by temporary diagonal obstructions made of trees and branches, which are used to direct the
water into contour channels along the hillside.

2.Eastern Himalayan region

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Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim,Tripura, jalpaiguri and
coochbihar districts of West Bengal are fall under this region with high rainfall and high forest cover .
Total cultivated area of this region is 3 991 000ha. Among this the rainfed area is 1 242 000 hac and
irrigated area of this region is 2 749 200 hac. Annual rainfall of this region ranges from 1 840mm to 3
528 mm. Average yield production [kg/ha] of this region for rainfed and irrigated crops is 1200 kg/hac
and 1800 kg/hac respectively. Irrigation source is Canals a and irrigate by either border strip and wild
flooding.major soil types of this region is Alluvial, red loamy, red sandy, brown hill soil. This region is
affected by high runoff water and that leads to severe soil erosion . The slope of the land and numerous
small streams that exist there, make it easy to utilize the water. The hill springs, called jhoras, are the
only dependable source of water in most places.
In Sikkim, local people have evolved efficient water harvesting systems together with land
management systems. Irrigation is mostly confined to rice fields and cardamom plantations. In rice
fields, irrigation is done in bench terraces. In the case of cardamom, irrigation water is allowed to flow
without proper distribution channels. Construction of water channels, regulation of water flow, and
drawing of drinking water were traditionally done through community participation. The common
sources of drinking water are streams and kholas (tanks).
In Arunachal Pradesh-the irrigation of rice terraces with bamboo pipes, and the Apatani
system of wet rice irrigation. In the former method, water is transported through an intricate system of
Bamboo pipes to agriculture fields. But this system is now becoming obsolete and is being replaced by
iron pipes and channel irrigation. The apatanis have evolved a very scientific system of field irrigation.
The striking features are partially flooded rice fields, and the intricate design of the ‘contour dams
dividing the plots.
This region stretches over six states Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya. The
water resources potential of the region is the largest in the entire country. Consequently, there is an
abundant groundwater resource. Maximum scope for groundwater exists in Assam, Tripura and
Arunachal Pradesh. The available surface water resources have hardly been tapped because of the
rugged nature of the terrain. Hence, cultivation in the region is largely rainfed and jhum cultivation
(shifting cultivation) has been widely adopted.
Water harvesting practices in Meghalaya take the form of wet rice cultivation in parts of the
Jaintia hills, and of bamboo drip irrigation in other regions. This ingenious system of tapping of stream
and spring water by using bamboo pipes to irrigate plantations is widely prevalent and so performed that
about 18 to 20 litres of water entering the bamboo pipe system per minute gets transported over several
hundred metres and finally gets reduced to 20 to 80 drops per minute at the site of the plant. The
bamboo drip irrigation system is normally used to irrigate the betel leaf or black pepper crops planted in
arecanut (betelnut) orchards or in mixed orchards. Bamboo pipes are used to divert perennial springs on
the hilltops to the lower reaches by gravity.

3.Lower Gangetic plain region;

This zone consist of West Bengal. Total cultivated area of this region is 1 961 000 hac of
which rainfed area is 3 552 000 hac and irrigated area is 1 911 000 hac . Annual rainfall of this
region ranges from 1 302 mm to 1 607 mm. canals and ground water are the irrigation water
sources and irrigate by either border strip and wild flooding. major soil types of this region is Red
and yellow Deltaic. Bengal, there was an old tradition of harvesting streams in the plains abutting
the hills. It has been reported that cultivators cut small irrigated channal locally called jampoi,
from streams which seemed suitable. As such, this method was once the principle source of
irrigation in the Jalpaguri district.The major irrigation projects, namely, Teesta Barrage Project and

17
Subarnarekha Barrage Project are currently in operation in the State. During the 10th plan 51.475
thousand hectares of irrigation potential has been created. The target for the 11th plan is to create
210.9 thousand hectares of irrigation potential. A cumulative irrigation to the tune of 1,38,520
hectares has been created from the Teesta Barrage project upto 2006-07 against the ultimate
potential of 5,27,000 hectares. Subamarekha Barrage Project envisages to irrigate 99248 hectares
in Kharif and 30,766 hectares in Rabi seasons in the districts of Purba and Paschim Medinipur.Out
of 32 medium irrigation schemes in the district of Purulia 25 irrigation schemes have already been
completed. The ultimate minor irrigation potential in the State has been estimated at 44.34 lakh
hectares, out of which 31.34 lakh hectares are from ground water resources and 13.00 lakh
hectares are from surface water resources. Upto the 2006-07, 38.64 lakh hectares minor irrigation
potential was created out of which 81.96 per cent could be utilized during the year amounting to
31.67 lakh hectares.

4.Middle Gangetic plain region;

12 districts of Uttar Pradesh,27 districts of Bihar are in this zone. Total cultivated area of
this region is 9 851 000ha. Among this the rainfed area is hac 3802 000 and irrigated area of this
region is 6 049 000hac. Annual rainfall of this region ranges from 1 211mm to 1 470mm. Average
yield production [kg/ha] of this region for rainfed and irrigated crops is 1500 kg/hac and 2 900
kg/hac respectively. canals and ground water are the irrigation water sources and irrigate by either
border strip and wild flooding. major soil types of this region is Alluvial. This region is affected
by frequent floods.

5.Upper Gangetic plain region Uttar Pradesh. Total cultivated area of this region is 12 596 000ha. of
which rainfed area is 5 279 000 hac and irrigated area is 7 317 000 hac Annual rainfall of this region
ranges from 721 mm to 979mm. Average yield production [kg/ha] of this region for rainfed and irrigated
crops is 1 800 kg/hac and 2 850 kg/hac respectively. canals and ground water are the irrigation water
sources and irrigate by either border strip and wild flooding. major soil types of this region is Alluvial
6.Trans Gangetic plain region Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan.in this region the
exploitation of ground water potential is very high i.e haryana and Punjab are using 93.53% and 91.42 %
of total ground water potentioal. And also these region is using maximum amount of surface water .
Punjab, the name derived from the Persian words, Punj (five) and ab (water) was a land of five rivers
which formed part of Indus Basin till 1947. After partition of the country, Indus water Treaty-1960
restricted India’s rights of usage to only three Eastern rivers (Sutlej, Ravi and Beas), the three Western
rivers (Indus, Chenab and Jhelum) were earmarked for exclusive usage of Pakistan. Punjab does have a
very well developed and interlinked river system and widespread 14500 kms long Canal Systems. By
the late 60s, tubewell irrigated areas had equalled and soon outstripped canal irrigated areas in Punjab.
In Haryana too, tubewell irrigation grew rapidly till it now equals the canal irrigation . The number of
tubewells in Punjab jumped from 20,066 to over 910,000 from 1965-66 to 1997-98. In Haryana, the
number of tubewells jumped from 25,311 in 1965-66 to and in 583,705 in 2000 The primary driver of
tubewell based irrigation was the HYV seeds which required assured supply of water and were sensitive
to the timing of waterings. While canal irrigation certainly was helpful with the new seeds, it could
hardly provide the kind of assured supply required by them. Increasingly, the farmers in Punjab, and
then in Haryana turned to groundwater irrigation. 6 out 12 districts in Punjab had a negative
groundwater balance, with draft exceeding recharge. These districts were Amritsar, Sangrur, Jalandhar,
Kapurthala, Ludhiana and Patiala - several of the Bhakra command districts. As the exploitation

18
continued unabated, the problem has assumed menacing proportions, both, in Punjab and in Haryana.
Indeed, it seems that significant part of the farm output now depends on mining of groundwater in both
the states.

7.Eastern plateau and hills region

This region consist of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra, Orissa, West
Bengal. Total cultivated area of this region is 14 372 000
ha. of which rainfed area is 11 803 000hac and irrigated area is 2 570 000 hac Annual rainfall of this
region ranges from 1 271mm to 1 436 mm. Average yield production [kg/ha] of this region for rainfed
and irrigated crops is 1 400kg/hac and 1 800kg/hac respectively. Tube wells and tanks are the water
sources and irrigate by either border strip and wild flooding. 4-6 irrigations are applied. major soil types
of this region is Red sandy, red and yellow. Shallow soils with undulating topographyIn most of these
areas, the undulating terrain has been utilized by constructing small bunds either locally by erstwhile
Zamindars, British administrative officials or by the respective state governments, usually under minor
irrigation schemes, which is mentioned later in this chapter.
8.Central plateau and hills region
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh fall under this zone. Total cultivated area of this
region is 24 259 000ha. of which rainfed area is 19 012 000hac and irrigated area is 5 257 000hac
Annual rainfall of this region ranges from 1490mm to 1 570 mm. Average yield production [kg/ha] of
this region for rainfed and irrigated crops is 1 750kg/hac and 2 400 kg/hac respectively. Tube wells and
tanks are the water sources and irrigate by either border strip or wild flooding. 4-6 irrigations are
applied.major soil types of this region is Red sandy, red and yellow. Shallow soils with undulating
topography. representing area 46 districts of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and RajasthanIn these
areas generally, there is little cultivation on the hillsides. The cultivated area is generally confined to the
valleys and the low ground between the hills, where the soil is alluvial. In many of these regions, wells
were the chief irrigation source. Tanks were also constructed in and around many forts that are scattered
in the region.

9.Western plateau and hills region:

This region consist of parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra Total cultivated area of this
region is 20 543 000ha. of which rainfed area is 17 821 000hac and irrigated area is 2 722 000hac
Annual rainfall of this region ranges from 602mm to 1 040 mm. Average yield production [kg/ha] of
this region for rainfed and irrigated crops is 1 250kg/hac and 1750 kg/hac respectively. Tube wells and
tanks are the water sources and irrigate by either border strip or wild flooding. 4-6 irrigations are
applied.soil type of this location is Medium to deep black soils. Predominant crop rotation is
Cotton/soybean. Wheat is taken after soybean/rice/sorghum.
In Maharashtra, the well irrigation was fairly extensively used and was the principal form of irrigation in
the central deccan region. Numerous dams, known locally as bandharas, as a permanent or temporary
nature built either of earthen or masonry, were built across rivers and streams in western deccan. These
structures would either raise the water level to enable water to form large reservoirs. Where a bandhara
was built across a small stream, the water supply would usually last for a few months.
10.Southern plateau and hills region
35 districts of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are falling under this region. Total
cultivated area of this region is 18 341 000ha. of which rainfed area is 13 842 000hac and irrigated area
is 4 499 000 hac Annual rainfall of this region ranges from 677mm to1 001 mm. Average yield
production [kg/ha] of this region for rainfed and irrigated crops is 650kg/hac and 1750 kg/hac

19
respectively.soil type of this region was Medium to deep black soils, red sandy, and red loamy. water
harvesting for irrigation in Karnataka used a number of systems: water was supplied directly from river
channels; from tanks supplied by river channels; from a series of tanks situated in valleys of rivers and
streams, and, by wells and springs.
Karnataka has the ultimate Irrigation Potential, from all sources has been estimated as 61.00
lakh hectares, out of which 35 Lakhs hectares are under major and medium irrigation projects. Upto end
of March 2009, cumulative irrigation potential of 24.28 lakh ha has been created. Important irrigation
schemes implemented in the Andhra pradesh are Vamsadhara Project Stage-I, Godavari Delta System,
Yeleru Reservoir Project, Krishna Delta System, Pennar Delta System, Pennar River Canal System,
Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy Sagar Project, Tungabhadra Project high level canal Stage-I, Tungabhadra
Project low level canal, Sriramsagar Stage-I, Nizamsagar Project, Nagarjuna Sagar Project and
Rajolibanda Diversion scheme.
11. East coast plains and hills region
Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu.traditionally, people depended on tanks for
irrigation and terracing for cultivation. In Andhra Pradesh region, channel irrigation was traditionally
common though tanks were also dug. The high mountains of the Nilgiri in TamilNadu rise at the
southern-most end of the eastern ghats and mark the meeting point of the eastern and western ghats.
Ancient rulers of Madurai to establish a system of irrigation made the continuous slope from the
mountains to the sea. Whenever the surface dipped a little on either side of the Vaigai River, a strong
curved embankment was raised with its concave side facing a river and a channel branching off near the
top of the embankment. During floods, water would run through the channel to low lying lands and fill
the tanks. Though no artificial irrigation has been practiced in the Nilgiri district, in the Madurai and
Coimbatore districts, channel tank, and well-irrigation is widespread.
The coastal plains of Orissa, comprises of three district geographic divisions-the salt tract; the arable
tract, which is the main rice producing zone of the state, and the sub mountainous tract, where the delta
meets the mountainous tract. Generally, the mainstay of irrigation sources in the hilly areas had been the
tanks. Some tanks were excavated and fed by natural streams, others were made by constructing
embankments across drains. In the plains, the chief source of irrigation was flood water which was let
out into cultivated areas through embankment sluices.
The coastal plains of Andhra Pradesh comprise a belt of varying width which extends from
Visakhapatnam in the north to Nellore in the south. The two main river systems of this region are the
Krishna and Godavari. Numerous small streams and rivers flow down the hills which have traditionally
been used to irrigate crops either through cuts in embankments or by tanks fed by these streams. In the
Visakhapatnam district, the Eastern Ghats give rise to numerous streams that flow directly into the sea
or to the Godavari.The main rivers that were used for irrigation in these plains were the Varaha, Sarada,
Nagavali and the Suvarnamukhi. There were a number of ancient dams, called the anicuts, on these
rivers. In the Krishna and Godavari deltas, irrigation largely depends on channels drawn from the rivers.
Hence, on the whole, irrigation in the coastal plains of Andhra Pradesh was dependent on tanks and
anicuts, many of which are still in use today.
The region between the Nilgiri hills and the coast of Tamilnadu covers a large tract of land that suffers
from rather scanty rainfall. Hence, artificial irrigation has been practiced. The various sources of
irrigation in the erstwhile Madras presidency were rivers, reservoirs, tanks and wells. Anicuts (diversion
weirs) on rivers like Tambrapami, Noel, Tungabhadra, Amaravati, Vaigai and Pennar were constructed
by local rulers, much before the British rule, to irrigate the adjacent areas through systems of irrigation
channels. It is indeed marvelous that many of these systems are still in use today. For example, the grand
anicut on the river cauvery was build by the Chola king, Kari, in the second century AD, and is still in

20
use in slightly remodeled form. Apart from anicuts, there has also been a strong tradition of irrigation
through tanks, called eris. The eris have played several important roles in maintaining ecological
harmony as flood coastal systems, preventing soil erosion and wastage of runoff during periods of heavy
rainfall, and recharging the ground water in the surrounding areas.

12. West coast plains and ghat region

Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu. in these hill ranges, it is gathered that
ponds and tanks for water storage and diversion channels from streams has been practiced for many
years for paddy cultivation and orchards.
Wells are common in the coastal belt aquifers of Kerala, while medium to large diameter open
dug wells and bore wells are common in the midlands. In the highlands, springs, borewells, dugwells,
and medium-sized surface tanks are common water harvesting structures.
This region stretches southwards from the hot and near-arid Kathiawar peninsula of Gujarat to the
humid Malabar Coast of Kerala.The Kathiawar peninsula and the Gujarat plains lie midway between the
barren Thar desert and the humid Konkan region. Here, water is found close to the surface and
numerous wells, called vavs or bavdis are used as sources of water for drinking. In some low-lying
districts to the north and northwest of the peninsula, the ground water is saline, and as a result almost
every village has a pond or reservoir. In Surat, Bharuch and Ahmedabad districts and the erstwhile
Baroda state, wells, lakes and tanks are important sources of water, both for irrigation and domestic use.
The Konkan region of Maharashtra is a narrow belt of land which lies to the west of Sahyadri range, and
is characterized by high humidity and heavy rainfall. Fertile alluvial soils in the lowland regions are
used to cultivate rice. These soils are free of salt and the fields are often embanked (bandhini) and
flooded during the monsoon. Wells, lakes and reservoirs also were important source for irrigation and
drinking. The larger rivers are saline ingressed due to their proximity to the sea and the waters are only
periodically sweet. Though there are no large canals, often water from small streams are diverted
through narrow water courses (pats) to irrigate rice fields. Field embankments (shilotris) were an
interesting feature of tillage in Colaba and Thana districts. These embankments were made to keep out
the tidal waters. The Khazana lands of Goa plays a crucial role in the states’ coastal ecology and cover
more than 18,000 ha. The term Khazana is said to be derived from the portugese casino, which means a
big rice field, and are the low lying agricultural fields irrigated with water from rivers, which is
controlled through sluice gates’ two major rivers, the Zuari and the Mandovi, form the food bowl of
Goa. In the coastal regions of Karnataka, cultivators have used springs and streams skillfully by
diverting numerous channels and constructing temporary dams. In some places, like uttara Kamada, the
lowland coastal belt is narrower and the Sahyadris rise to the east. Its lowland and upland valleys have
basins crowded with spice and betal garden. The water to these gardens are brought from springs which
abound at the head of every valley, and generally collected in small ponds or reservoir and from there
channeled to the gardens. Water is also brought by channels from small rivulets which abound the area.
Irrigation in Kerala in the past was restricted to the southern regions of the erstwhile Travancore state
and to irrigate rice and garden crops. It has been observed that it is an age-old custom in the coastal
regions of Kerala to dam small streams and divert water by gravity flow for irrigation of low-lying lands
around
13.Gujarat plains and hills region
Gujarat, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu, The utilisable Ground water Resources for
irrigation in Gujarat is 1.9169 M ha m/year whereas net draft is only 0.6411 M ha m/year.Total
cultivated area of this region is 9 600 000ha. of which rainfed area is 6 558 000hac and irrigated area
is 3 042 000hac Annual rainfall of this region ranges from 340mm to 1 793 mm. Average yield

21
production [kg/ha] of this region for rainfed and irrigated crops is 850kg/hac and 2850 kg/hac
respectively. Tube wells and tanks are the water sources and irrigate by either border strip and wild
flooding. 4-6 irrigations are applied. Tube wells and tanks are the water sources and irrigate by either
border strip and wild flooding. 4-6 irrigations are applied.soil type of this region was Deep black, coastal
alluvial, and medium deep black

14.Western dry region;

This zone includes the dry region of Rajasthan.The total cultivated area of the state
encompasses about 20 million hectares and out of this only 20% .Annual rainfall of this region ranges
from 375mm.Ground water level is available only at a depth of 30 to 61m. Rajasthan farmers have to
depend on different sources of irrigation that include tube wells, wells and tanks. The Punjab Rivers in
the north, the Narmada River in the south and the Agra Canals from Haryana and Uttar Pradesh provide
water to the dry land of Rajasthan. Northwestern Rajasthan is irrigated by the Indira Gandhi Canal. Oil
of thi region Desert, Gray brown soils. prominent crop rotation Pearl millet-Wheat is taken after
Pearlmillet/cotton.

15.Island region
Andman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshdweep are fall under this region .
The Shompen and Jarawa tribals of Andaman make extensive use of split bamboos in their water
harvesting systems. A full length bamboo is cut longitudinally, and placed along a gentle slope with the
lower end leading into a shallow pit. These serve as conduits for rainwater which is painstakingly
collected, drop by drop, in pits called jackwells. Among the ones, buckets made of logs and sometimes
of giant bamboo, are often found suspended from the roofs of the huts along with nets and baskets to
trap rain waterIn Car Nicobar the tribals, mainly Nicobarese and Jarawas, use circular dugwells ranging
from 2 to 20 metre in diameter, since the water table is just about 2 to 3 meters from ground. In the
Lakshdweep islands, the residents usually have wells for meeting their drinking water requirements.
Many of these wells are stepwells and almost every house hold has a dugwell for domestic purposes. In
Kavaratti, there are about 800 dugwells while in Amini there are more than 650. Presently, however,
rainwater harvesting (from roofs) structures are being constructed all over the islands.

References;
http://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php -india portal website
http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Water%20Resource
%20Engg/pdf/m3l05.pdf
Singh & Dhillon ,Agricultural Geography, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2004
http://nwda.gov.in/writereaddata/linkimages/1226441921.pdf
http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/agpc/doc/field/Wheat/asia/india/indiaagec.htm

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