MEMORY, 2006, 14 (3), 307±315

Congruency effect of presentation modality on false

recognition of haptic and visual objects

Tomohiro Nabeta and Jun-ichiro Kawahara

Hiroshima University, Japan

Studying a list of items related to an item that is not presented (lure item) produces a false memory. We
investigated whether a haptic study/test results in false recognition and, if so, whether congruency of
presentation modality between study and test reduces the false recognition. After haptic or visual study of
lists of real objects that are related to a lure object, participants were asked to recognise whether the
objects were presented haptically or visually. We obtained false recognition results with haptic study and/
or test. False recognition was reduced when presentation and study modalities were congruent. After
haptic study, false recognition was reduced in the haptic test, as compared to the visual test. In contrast,
visual study always reduced visual false recognition. These results indicate that there is a general effect of
retrieval cues that will reduce false recognition.

Our memories do not always reflect our actual
experience. Under some circumstances, people
create false memories and remember that which
has never been experienced (Roediger, 1996). The
Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm is
a conventional experimental methodology for
observing false memories expressed as false
recognition (Deese, 1959; Roediger & McDer-
mott, 1995; see also Read, 1996). In this paradigm,
participants study several lists of items. For every
presented list there is a lure item that is semanti-
cally related to the list but is not itself presented
for study. Following the study of these lists, par-
ticipants take a recall and/or a recognition test.
Typically, participants falsely recall and/or
recognise the lure items more frequently than the
unrelated control items.
Although false memory is a robust phenom-
enon (e.g., Dodson, Koutsuaal, & Schacter, 2000;
Roediger & McDermott, 2000), researchers have
demonstrated some conditions in which this effect
can be reduced. The presentation modality of
study lists is an important variable in reducing
false memories (Kellogg, 2001; Smith & Hunt,
1998). For example, Smith and Hunt (1998) found
that the visual study of words, as compared to
auditory study, reduced false memory rates in a
visual recognition test. They suggested that con-
gruency between study and test modalities pro-
vides information that helps participants
differentiate lure items from studied items (e.g.,
Tussing & Greene, 1997).
The present study examined whether the con-
gruency of presentation modality between study
and test reduces false recognition in the haptic and
visual domains. This study was motivated by two
issues. First, previous studies have only used visual
and auditory modalities to examine the con-
gruency effect. For example, Gallo, McDermott,
Percer, and Roediger (2001) found that visual
study, as compared to auditory study, reduced
false memories in a visual recognition test, and
they suggested that congruency of the presenta-
tion modality was important. In the present study,
we examined whether this applies to other mod-
alities, such as the haptic one.

Correspondence should be addressed to Tomohiro Nabeta, Department of Psychology, Hiroshima University, 1-1-1 Kagamiyama,
Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8524, Japan. Email: nabeta@hiroshima-u.ac.jp
The authors thank Tim Perfect and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on an earlier manuscript. We also thank
Chikako Dotani, Hiroki Mine, Hiroshi Shimoda, Hiromi Tanaka, and Fumiyo Toyota for collecting data. This work was sponsored by
research grants from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.

# 2005 Psychology Press Ltd

http://www.psypress.com/memory DOI:10.1080/09658210500277398
308 NABETA AND KAWAHARA
The haptic modality is useful in understanding
the pattern of results obtained in studies of visual
and auditory modalities. Gallo et al. (2001) found
that false recognition was reduced by visual study±
test congruency, but not auditory congruency. It
seems that study items encoded visually are
retrievable and informative enough to reduce
false memories when tested visually, but do not
exhibit the same advantage if tested auditorily.
Some researchers (e.g., Kellogg, 2001; Marsh &
Hicks, 1998) suggested that this asymmetric effect
of modality congruency on false memory reflects
differences in distinctiveness between visual and
auditory cues during the encoding process. For
example, Marsh and Hicks (1998, Experiment 2)
used a source-monitoring task and found that lure
items were rejected correctly more often when the
test question directed attention to visual features
(e.g., ``Did you see this item?'') than when atten-
tion was directed to auditory features (e.g., ``Did
you hear this item?''). This suggested that visual
cues are more effective than auditory cues in
rejecting lures. Modality congruency effects,
however, have been tested only with visual and
auditory modalities (Gallo et al., 2001; Smith &
Hunt, 1998), so it is unclear whether asymmetric
reduction in false recognition may be obtained
with other modalities. To address this issue, we
introduced the haptic modality and paired it with
the visual modality. This allowed us to test whe-
ther asymmetric reduction is specific to stimulus
modality or is a general effect.
Second and more importantly, we believe that
resolving the question of whether study±test con-
gruency reduces false recognition in the haptic
and visual domains helps us contrast two major
accounts of false memory: the fuzzy trace and the
implicit associative response (IAR) theories. The
fuzzy trace hypothesis postulates that two differ-
ent kinds of representation, gist trace and verba-
tim trace, are created during encoding. The gist
trace contains the general meaning of the studied
list, and the verbatim trace incorporates the per-
ceptual details of the studied items (e.g., Brainerd
& Reyna, 2002; Cabeza & Lennartson, 2005). The
fuzzy trace hypothesis states that higher false
recognition of lure items reflects retrieval of the
gist trace, and reduction in false memory reflects
retrieval of the verbatim trace (Seamon, Luo,
Schwartz, Jones, Lee, & Jones, 2002). On the
other hand, the IAR account (e.g., McDermott,
1997; Underwood, 1965) postulates that lure items
are generated explicitly or implicitly and stored in
the same way as studied items. Lure items are,
therefore, difficult to differentiate from the stu-
died items, resulting in higher false recognition of
lures.
These two accounts predict different effects of
modality congruency on false recognition, because
modality congruency enhances retrieval of ver-
batim traces (e.g., Tulving & Thomson, 1973). In
the fuzzy trace account, modality congruency
facilitates the retrieval of verbatim traces and
reduces false recognition, so there should be less
false recognition when study and test modalities
are the same than when they are different. In the
IAR account, however, modality congruency
should not matter, because IAR postulates that
false recognition occurs primarily from the acti-
vation of gist traces. If this hypothesis is correct,
there should be no difference in false recognition
rates, regardless of the congruency of study±test
modalities.
The use of the haptic modality is instructive
here, as well. With the suggested commonality in
haptic and visual memories (e.g., Easton, Green,
& Srinivas, 1997; Reales & Ballesteros, 1999), we
can assume that haptic cues are as effective as
visual cues, and we can test the two accounts of
false memory without being distracted by the
asymmetries observed in visual and auditory
pairings. We can predict that the reduction in false
recognition due to the congruency effect is
obtained both with vision and with haptics.
To summarise, the present study examined
whether congruency between study and test
modalities reduces false recognition in the haptic
and visual domains. We manipulated the con-
gruency of study and test modalities in a 2 (study
modality: haptic or visual) 6 2 (test modality:
haptic or visual) factorial design. After studying
real objects either haptically or visually, partici-
pants took haptic and visual recognition tests. If a
reduction in false recognition due to modality
congruency is mediated by an equivalent retrieval
of haptic or visual features, then false recognition
will be reduced more in the congruent condition
than in the incongruent condition.
METHOD
Participants
A total of 32 Hiroshima University students, 18 to
25 years of age, participated and either volun-
teered for course credits or were paid (12 parti-
cipants received course credits). All the

participants had normal or corrected-to-normal
vision. None of the participants reported any
problems with movement or with sensation in
their hands and arms. The participants were ran-
domly assigned to one of the two study conditions
(haptic or visual, each with 16 participants), and
were tested individually. They did not know the
aim of the experiment.
Stimulus materials and apparatus
As stimuli, 16 categories of real objects were used
(16 objects for each category; 256 total items, see
Appendix). Potentially harmful objects were
made less harmful, for example by filing down the
blades of scissors. Based on a pilot rating study in
which 15 naive adults rated the familiarity of items
in each category, items were listed from most to
least familiar in each list, and the order kept
constant across participants. The most familiar
item in each list was used as a lure item, as is
typical in false memory studies (e.g., Smith, Ward,
Tindell, Sifonis, & Wilkenfeld, 2000). To deter-
mine whether all participants could unambigu-
ously identify all objects, we conducted an
experiment using the same procedure as in the
present study. In this subsidiary experiment, six
naõÈve observers who did not participate in the
main experiment were able to identify all of the
objects used in the main experiment. This perfect
performance suggested that the objects were
familiar enough to be identified. A computer
controlled the stimulus duration by sending sig-
nals to participants through headphones.
Design
The experiment consisted of study and test pha-
ses. We manipulated study modality (haptic or
visual) between subjects and the congruency of
modalities between the study and test phases
(congruent or incongruent) within subjects in a 2
6 2 design. Participants in the haptic study group
were tested haptically in the congruent condition
and visually in the incongruent condition. Visual
study participants were tested visually in the
congruent condition and haptically in the incon-
gruent condition. In other words, half the partici-
pants studied visually and the remaining half
studied haptically. Both groups participated in 32
haptic trials and 32 visual trials in the recognition
test.
HAPTIC AND VISUAL FALSE MEMORY 309
Procedure
Haptic study. The study phase began with
instructions, followed by four practice trials. The
objects used in the practice trials were not used in
the experimental trials. Participants were
instructed to study objects by touching them and
told that they would be tested later on their
memory for those objects. They were also told
that all the objects were safe to touch. Participants
received signals to start and finish each trial
through headphones, which also provided white
noise to mask any accidental sounds produced by
touching objects during the experiment.
In the study phase, participants were seated in
front of a table on which objects were presented
from a canonical angle, with an opaque curtain to
hide the objects from view. The experimenter
placed an object on the table behind the curtain.
The participants then touched the object with
both hands for 2 seconds, as signalled through
their headphones. Individual objects were pre-
sented one by one at a constant pace with a 2-
second delay between trials. Each participant
touched objects from eight randomly chosen lists
in the study phase, and the remaining objects were
used as control objects in the test phase. Each
participant studied eight lists of 15 objects for a
total of 120 objects and the order of the study lists
was randomised for each participant. The objects
were presented one at a time and list by list; each
list was introduced by a female prompt voice
saying, ``Next list''. The study phase lasted until all
eight lists of objects had been presented. Twenty
minutes of arithmetic problems and mazes were
inserted between study and test phases.
The test phase consisted of 64 recognition test
trials. Each item was presented once during each
trial. There were four types of trials: (a) the stu-
died-object trial, in which the first, eighth, and
tenth objects in each studied list were presented,
as in Roediger and McDermott's (1995) study (3
objects 6 8 lists = 24 trials); (b) the lure trial, in
which the lure objects for each studied list (1
object 6 8 lists = 8 trials) were presented; (c) the
control condition of the studied-object trial, in
which the first, eighth, and tenth objects in each
non-studied list were presented (3 objects 6 8 lists
= 24 trials); and (d) the control condition of the
lure trial, in which the lure-equivalent objects for
each non-studied list (1 object 6 8 lists = 8 trials)
were presented. The recognition test was
constructed so that the objects were randomly
intermixed, except that each type of trial (studied-
310 NABETA AND KAWAHARA
Averaged rate of ``old'' responses (%) as a function of trial type, study modality, and
test modality
Haptic study
Trial type Haptic test
Studied 96.4
Control of 3.0
studied
Lure 15.6
Control of lure 3.1
object, lure, control of studied-object, control of
lure) was presented equally often in the visual and
haptic modalities across different participants,
resulting in 32 trials for each test modality.
The computer also generated sound signals to
tell the experimenters whether the next recogni-
tion trial should be presented visually or hapti-
cally. In the visual recognition trials, the
experimenter opened the curtain and participants
viewed a test object on the table. In the haptic
recognition trials, the participants touched a test
object behind the curtain, as they did in the study
phase. Regardless of the test modality, partici-
pants were allowed to look at or touch the object
until they reported aloud whether they had stu-
died it (the ``old'' response) or not (the ``new''
response). This procedure ensured that the parti-
cipants had fully identified the test objects either
haptically or visually.
Visual study. Stimulus materials, design, and
procedure were the same as in the haptic study
condition, except that the participants visually
studied each object for 2 seconds during the study
phase.
RESULTS
The averaged rates of the ``old'' responses for
each trial type in the two different test conditions
are presented in Table 1.
Veridical recognition. The averaged rate of
the ``old'' responses for two trial types (control of
studied-object or studied-object) was calculated as
a function of test modality. To consider the dif-
ference in the recognition hit rate between haptic
and visual test conditions, we calculated the cor-
rected veridical recognition rates, in which the
``old'' responses to the studied items were sub-
TABLE 1
Visual study
Visual test Haptic test Visual test
93.4 94.3 95.9
4.1 1.0 0
34.4 17.2 3.1
0 3.1 0
tracted from the ``old'' responses to the controls of
the studied items. A repeated measures 2 (study
modality: haptic or visual) 6 2 (test modality:
haptic or visual) analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was conducted and yielded no significant effects.1
False recognition. The rates of ``old'' respon-
ses to lure objects and to controls of lure objects
are also presented in Table 1. To consider the
difference in the recognition hit rate between
haptic and visual test conditions, we calculated the
corrected false recognition rates, in which the
``old'' responses to the lure items were subtracted
from the ``old'' responses to the controls of the
lure items. The corrected false recognition rates
are shown in Figure 1. A repeated measures 2
(study modality: haptic or visual) 6 2 (test mod-
ality: haptic or visual) ANOVA was conducted.
There was a main effect of study modality, F(1, 30)
= 10.20, MSE = 3525.39, p < .01, and of the
interaction between study and test modalities,
F(1, 30) = 23.38, MSE = 4306.64, p < .01. Further
analysis revealed that, after haptic study, the
corrected false recognition rate was lower in the
haptic test than in the visual test condition,
F(1, 30) = 20.78, MSE = 3828.12, p < .01, while
after visual study, the corrected rate was lower in
the visual test than in the haptic test condition,
F(1, 30) = 5.19, MSE = 957.03, p < .05.
1
Since the distribution of veridical recognition was highly
skewed, we conducted a square root transformation on the data
of studied and control objects, and subjected those data to a
repeated 2 6 2 (trial type and test modality) ANOVA. The
analysis exhibited the same pattern of results as the response
rate data. Specifically, there was a significant main effect of the
trial type, F(1, 15) = 1141.01, F(1, 15) = 6062.47, haptic study
and visual study conditions, respectively, ps < .01. There were
no effects of test modality or interaction of trial type and test
modality.

Figure 1. The averaged corrected false recognition rate as a function of study and test modality. The error bars show the standard
error of the averaged rate.
DISCUSSION
In this study we examined whether the con-
gruency of presentation modality between study
and test items is critical in reducing false recog-
nition. The present study specifically tested whe-
ther the false recognition resulting from the haptic
or visual study of real objects was reduced when
the presentation modality of the recognition test
was the same as that of the study modality.
The present results are consistent with the idea
that perceptual congruency of the study and test
modalities modulated the false recognition pro-
cess. When modalities were congruent, there was
less false recognition than when they were incon-
gruent. After haptic study, false recognition rates
in the haptic test condition were lower than those
in the visual test condition. Likewise, after visual
study, the false recognition rate was lower in the
visual test than in the haptic test condition. Lower
false recognition rates in the congruent condition
imply that the participants used cues encoded
through either the haptic or visual modality to
exclude lures from their memory of studied
objects when subsequently tested in the same
modality in which they had studied the objects.
We suggest that the mechanisms mediating the
modality congruency effect operate across multi-
ple modalities.
The present finding that the modality con-
gruency effect occurs regardless of the study
modality is consistent with the fuzzy trace
HAPTIC AND VISUAL FALSE MEMORY 311
account. It has been suggested that presenting
study and test items in congruent modalities is a
key variable that facilitates retrieval of the per-
ceptual cue (verbatim traces: Morris, Bransford,
& Franks, 1977; Tulving & Thomson, 1973), by
enhancing the salience of distinctive features that
differentiate the studied items from the lure items.
This is most likely because the studied objects
embody their encoded cues, while the lure objects
do not. The modality congruency effect suggests
not only that perceptual matching is important in
reducing false memory, but also that enhancing
verbatim trace retrieval reduces false recognition,
as predicted by the fuzzy trace hypothesis.
One might argue that the modality congruency
effect in the present study was due to unsuccessful
haptic identification of the real objects during the
study or test phases. As mentioned in the Method
section, the objects were familiar enough to
identify haptically. Since the participants visually
recognised haptically studied objects with very
high accuracy (about 93%), the transfer from
haptic study to visual test indicates that they were
able to identify the real objects haptically during
the study phase. If the participants had been
unable to identify the real objects haptically, they
would have been unable to visually recognise the
studied objects. These results, therefore, validate
our assumption that the participants were able to
identify the objects haptically.
In the present study, the modality congruency
effect was observed in both the haptic and visual
312 NABETA AND KAWAHARA
study modality. Other studies, using auditory and
visual modalities, found a modality congruency
effect only in the visual study condition (e.g.,
Gallo et al., 2001; Kellogg, 2001; Smith & Hunt,
1998), so the present study is the first report of a
modality effect (i.e., haptic) other than in the
visual domain. Why did haptic study produce the
modality effect? We believe that the difference in
the patterns of the modality congruency effect is
due to the difference in distinctiveness of the
presentation modality. In the present study, every
stimulus was visually different in size and colour,
and differed in size, weight, texture, and heat
conduction of materials for the haptic presenta-
tion. In studies that found asymmetric modality
congruence effects, all stimulus words were com-
monly read in a single voice for the auditory pre-
sentation, so it is conceivable that the lack of
stimulus distinctiveness was the source of the
asymmetry. In the present study, the congruency
effect was symmetrical across visual and haptic
modalities because the haptic modality conveyed
substantial distinctiveness to the haptically stu-
died items.
Effects of the visual modality were greater than
those of the haptic modality in the present study.
We assume that the fact that false recognition
rates were lower in the visual study condition
reflects an efficiency advantage for the visual
modality in object identification. In general, vision
has a wider spatial bandwidth with which to
identify objects, resulting in faster object recog-
nition (Loomis, Klatzky, & Lederman, 1991).
Since objects were presented haptically or visually
to participants for the same duration of time (2
seconds) in the present study, we propose that the
visual modality, which is generally more efficient,
provided more information to participants and led
to superior performance.
Such an advantage for visual recognition
implies beneficial encoding of the objects; the
more richly encoded cues associated with visual
study reduced false recognition rates more than
did the cues evoked by haptic study. This pattern
of results has been found in other studies that have
compared false memory under different study
conditions. For example, Israel and Schacter
(1997) reported that encoding rich cues reduced
false recognition; they found that studying visual
words and their pictures led to lower false recog-
nition rates than simply studying the visual or
auditory words. Similarly, other researchers have
found an analogous superiority of the visual over
the auditory in studies that have used visual and
auditory modalities; visual study produced lower
false memory rates than auditory study (Cleary &
Greene, 2002; Gallo et al., 2001; Smith & Hunt,
1998). The present finding is consistent with the
idea that visual study (compared with haptic
study) encodes richer cues, which reduce false
recognition responses. It is important to note,
however, that haptics do dominate vision in some
circumstances (Ernst & Banks, 2002).
In the present study, the effect of the study
modality was greater in the visual test condition
(34.4% false recognition vs 3.1 % for haptic and
visual study, respectively) than in the haptic test
condition (12.5% false recognition vs 14.1 % for
haptic and visual study, respectively). It is possible
that the impact of visual superiority and con-
gruency on false recognition produced this dif-
ference. False recognition rates were lowest in the
congruent visual test condition (visual studyÐ
visual test), among all of the study±test conditions,
because congruency and visual superiority both
contributed to accurate recognition. In contrast,
false recognition rates were highest in the incon-
gruent visual test condition (haptic studyÐvisual
test), because there was neither congruency nor
visual superiority. While there was no visual
superiority effect in the congruent haptic test
condition (haptic studyÐhaptic test), the visual
advantage was evident in the incongruent haptic
test condition (visual studyÐhaptic test). There-
fore, the difference between the two visual test
conditions was greater than the difference
between the two haptic test conditions.
In summary, by demonstrating that congruent
study±test presentation modalities reduced false
recognition, the present study is the first to
report that the cues encoded through the haptic
modality can reduce false recognition. This vali-
dates the generality of cues that reduce false
recognition.
Manuscript received 20 October 2004
Manuscript accepted 14 July 2005
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314 NABETA AND KAWAHARA

APPENDIX
The 16 lists (and their categories) of study and lure items used in the present study. The first item in each list is the lure. Within-list
items were presented in this order. Items used in the practice trials are presented at the end of this table.

(Toilet articles) (Toys) (Summer things) (Tableware)

toothbrush spinning top paper fan plate

toothpaste bilboquet rotary fan chopstick

cup take-tombo fireworks spoon
mirror kite pyrethrum coil knife
towel battledore wind bells fork
hairbrush wooden bricks barred lattice china cup
comb water pistol straw hat mug
soap daruma-otoshi snow cone maker bowl
dental floss marble inner tube teacup
drier chess piece insect cage wineglass
washbowl dice ring net teapot
shaver mask beetle drinking straw
soap dish card swimming cap porcelain spoon
electric shaver doll beach ball jug
tissue paper bubble blower goggle sake bottle
hair tweezer blocks snorkel sake cup

(Ornaments) (Writing utensils) (Footwear) (Household items)

ring Pencil Sneakers adhesive tape

necklace mechanical pencil leather shoes bandage

earring ball-point pen boots gauze
bracelet slender felt-tip pen climbing boots compress
wristwatch correction pen spiked shoes swab
glasses fountain pen sandals tweezers
wristband writing brush high heels absorbent cotton
necktie felt-tip pen mules flu mask
gloves paintbrush scuffs thermometer
belt crayon rubber boots capsule
scarf chalk wooden clogs eye drops
hat slender writing brush socks ice pillow
hairband ink japanese sandals powdered medicine
headband paints japanese socks nail clippers
sun visor india ink ski boots tablet
cap brush skates earpick

(Carpenter's tools) (Kitchen utensils) (Stationery) (Cleaning tools)

hammer cutting board Scissors broom

saw kitchen knife glue dustpan

screwdriver skillet retractable knife dustcloth
nail puller stewpan scotch tape vacuum cleaner
gimlet kitchen chopsticks stapler mop
bolt bowl triangle ruler duster
plane colander ruler deck brush
pincers ladle eraser bucket
tape measure spatula memo pad scrubbing brush
file measuring cup compasses rake
chisel rice paddle pencil sharpener rubber gloves
sandpaper kettle clip work gloves
carpenter's square spring scale packing tape sponge
wrench whisk protractor cleanser
nipper sauce pourer binder tongs
vise bottle opener abacus sink corner strainer
 HAPTIC AND VISUAL FALSE MEMORY 315

(Electrical appliances) (Vegetables) (Sports equipment) (Experimental tools)

radio Carrot soccer ball beaker

cellular phone lettuce baseball test tube

camera cabbage softball flask
laptop computer cucumber tennis ball spirit lamp
telephone green pepper bat Erlenmeyer flask
cd player potato golf ball Bunsen burner
portable cd player onion tennis racket syringe
calculator sweet potato ping-pong ball microscope
rice cooker corn baseball glove graduated cylinder
table lamp eggplant ping-pong racket tripod
toaster pumpkin badminton racket petri dish
flashlight japanese radish catcher mask test-tube holder
iron leek shuttlecock pan scales
water heater lotus root jump rope wire gauze
coffee maker burdock root golf club mortar
electric heater mushroom softball-tennis ball pestle

(Practice items)
clothes pin
back scratcher
ashtray
umbrella