C o m p a r a t i v e L i t e r a t u r e in G r e e c e R e v i s i t e d :

A m b i g u i t i e s of t h e Past a n d P e r s p e c t i v e s for t h e F u t u r e

Anna Tabaki*

1 he Greek world, "both continental and insular, a foyer from where

Hellenism was destined to spread over relatively large areas, according to
the ebb and flow of its expansion" ' constitutes a natural and symbolic
frontier in numerous ways (cultural, religious, ethnic frontier), a gateway
to Eastern Europe, uniting over the ages both East and West with North
and South in the Mediterranean basin. 2
Anyone who wishes to capture the essence of this hybrid society a priori
over the centuries, reverting first to the classical period, passing from the
Hellenistic mirage to the transitional period of the Byzantine Empire,
spanning antiquity and the Middle Ages, then turning slowly to the Ottoman
peace, silent at the beginning, more turbulent at the end of the 17th century,
arriving finally at the cosmopolitan target-cities which flourished until the

* Professor at the University of Athens (Department of Theatre Studies), Associate

Researcher at the IRN/FNRS. E-mail : atabaki@thcatrc.uoa.gr, antabaki@cic.gr
1. In the Preface of his History of Neo-Hellenic Literature, C. TH. DIMARAS looks
at the diachronic aspect of the issue a n d w r i t e s : "La Grèce proprement dite - t a n t
continentale qu'insulaire— est le centre géographique de la présente Histoire, le foyer
d ' o ù l'hellénisme était destiné à s'étendre en éventail sur des espaces plus ou moins
vastes, selon le flux et le reflux d e son expansion" (I refer to the French edition: C.
TH. DIMARAS, Histoire de la littérature néo-hellénique. Des origines à nos jours,
Collection of the French Institute in Athens, Athens 1965, p. 14).
2. See Le Sud-Est Européen, Carrefour de civilisations, [Proceedings of the]
Conference "Le Sud-Est européen, carrefour de civilisations" (UNESCO
H e a d q u a r t e r s , Paris, 9th-10th F e b r u a r y 1998), Bulletin de l'Association Internationale
d'Études du Sud-Est Européen, nos 28-29/1998-1999, special issue, in particular the
introductory forewords by Prof. ANDRÉ GuiLLOU, "Frontières", pp. 19-24 and those of
RÄZVAN THEODERESCU, who repeats, a m o n g others, his earlier schema of South-
Eastern European "cultural corridors", pp. 26-27. By the same author, "Au sujet des
'corridors culturels' de l'Europe sud-orientale"; Revue des Études Sud-Est
Européennes, 1(1983), p. 7-11.

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20th century, will be fascinated by its polymorphism and its capacity to

assimilate new elements. This alterity/diversity has always been present, the
same and the different have coexisted harmoniously and, as inseparable
elements, have established images of what is social. Indeed, a comparative
analysis can hardly be avoided; this urge to describe, to reflect on the other
can even be traced back to Plutarch's Parallel Lives. Parallelisms have
always played a key role in the formation of classical sophistry and rhetoric.
But let us leave this game of erudition aside.

Ambiguities in Comparitiveness before the term had been coined

If the first ambiguity lies in the nature of the Greek cultural

environment itself, making it thus attractive for a comparative study, an
attraction though that has for the most part gone unheeded and
remained unexplored, then the second ambiguity is the surprising fact
that the comparative approach in literature has often been adopted
prematurely and disproportionately. On this subject, Constantine
Dimaras suggested in one of his final papers prior to his death ("View-
points on Comparative Literature"), 3 that it was thanks to Adamance
Coray's Parisian circle (beginning of the 19th century) that we owe the
impact of initial comparative concerns on Greek Literature, in the
epistemological sense of the term. Coray and his adepts borrowed from
the French Idéologues the notion of analysis in comparative study,
considering it to be an integral part of Humanities (comparative history,
comparative philosophy, comparative literary History). 4 The first official

3. C. T H . DIMARAS, «Απόψεις γύρω στην συγκριτική γραμματολογία» [Viewpoints

on Comparative Literature], Ζητήματα ιστορίας των ελληνικών γραμμάτων [Historical
Aspects of (Modern) Greek Literature], Paratiritis, Thessaloniki 1994, p. 15 ff.
4. NASOS VAYENAS u s e s a succinct example, t a k e n from the periodical Hermes ho
Loghios of the year 1813; consisting of a text published in series a n d titled, Χαρα­
κτήρες της παλαιάς και νεωτέρας φιλολογίας, δηλαδή της Ελληνικής, Λατινικής, Αγγλικής
και Γερμανικής, μετά κριτικής παραλληλίας αυτών [The character of ancient a n d
modern literature, that is Greek, Latin, Italian, French, English and German
Literature, after a critical parallelism of t h e m ] , « Η Συγκριτική Φιλολογία στην Ελλά-

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course in comparative Literature was introduced in the Ionian Academy

at Corfu; it was inspired and founded by the philhellene Lord Guilford
who in 1827 entrusted to Andreas Calvos, a poet and man of letters, the
teaching of the Belles-lettres, that is modern literature compared to
ancient literature and contemporary literature. 5
Throughout the 19th century, Modern Greek culture was compelled to
define the components of its 'national character' (génie national),
regrouping all these elements dispersed in the past and in a particularly
varied space. This theoretical preoccupation in pursuit of Greekness
(hellinikotita) persisted even during the first decades of the 20th century
(in particular with the so-called 30s generation) and went hand in hand
with modernism. In this process, the influence of Western aesthetic
movements was decisive. Nevertheless, I am in complete agreement with
one of my Greek colleagues, when he writes that all the great literary
debates of 19th century, pleading the cause of romanticism or
disapproving its excesses (Dimitrios Vernardakis, Spyridon Vasiliadis),
the impact of other aesthetic movements, the dispute between Emm.
Roidis with Angelos Vlachos (1877), Spyridon Zambelios' essays on the
national historiography and in particular his essays on the Popular song
and the poetry of Dionyssios Solomos, possessed a powerful comparative
vision. 6 Even the concept of Comparative Literature (grammatology
[συγκριτική γραμματολογία =synkritiki grammatologhia]), after its use with
a perjorative nuance, was introduced into the Greek vocabulary at an early
date, in 1860, by lakovos Polylas in an essay on Solomos' poetry.
As well as satisfying an extremely important ideological need, the
comparative method proved to be an effective tool in demonstrating, with

δα ως τη γενιά του ' 3 0 » [Comparative L i t e r a t u r e in Greece until the Generation of

the 30s], Σύγκριση / Comparaison, 1 (April 1989), p. 41, 45.
5. This plan w a s never realised; yet Calvos h a d already taught, the previous year,
at the Academy " t h e application of the philosophy in general literature", m a k i n g
reference mainly to Dante's poetry. Cf. NASOS VAYENAS, « Η Συγκριτική Φιλολογία στην
Ελλάδα ως τη γενιά του '30», ρ. 42.
6. Ν. VAYENAS, « Η Συγκριτική Φιλολογία στην Ελλάδα ως τη γενιά του '30»,
ρ. 42-43.

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 ANNA TABAKI

the aid of a solid scientific argument (exploiting mainly the comparative

linguistic and folklore domain), the dependency of modern times on
antiquity, or even in examining contacts with Western culture, an area
which was to engage almost exclusively the attention of specialists for a
long period of time.
The central issue which preoccupied most then was whether to
preserve cultural ties with Western Europe or to condemn these in-
fluences as harmful, presupposing above all that a comparative analysis
could be made. Certainly, what contributed to this bipolarity, traces of
which can be found in some important works, was on the one hand the
plethora of innovations radiating at that time in European letters and
which inundated peripheral Greece, and on the other, the fact that the
country possessed a rich heritage spanning many centuries whose
traditions it had never been able to renounce. 7
In modern times, the literary explosion was subjected to Frankish and
Venetian influences in certain regions (Cyprus, Crete, Ionian Islands). It
was here that the post-Byzantine tradition (poetry and narration) came
into contact with mainly Italian and French models, through a number of
works containing vestiges of earlier morphological forms of a post-
Byzantine character as well as the aesthetics of the Late Renaissance and
Baroque. This current, which gave rise to a remarkable literary pro-
duction, was exploited by philologists such as Constantine Sathas, whose
monumental work resulted in the restoration of Cretan theatre.
However, it is interesting to note another paradox: Cretan literature
was not exempt from this obsession expressed in literary criticism at the
end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, that is integrating
national character in its system of values and rejecting all supposedly
foreign imitation. Some consider this part of Greek literature as a 'servile
imitation', while others, among them the eminent philologue and
comparatisi Emmanouil Kriaras, inspired by his own linguistic vulgarist
convictions, have insisted on the popular style of Cretan literature and

7. ANNA TABAKI, " L a formation du 'génie national' en Grèce: Ambivalences

culturelles et esthétiques", Revue des Études Néohelléniques, V/l (1996), Daedalus,
Paris-Athens [March \999], p. 65-77.

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 COMPARATIVE LITERATURE IN GREECE REVISITED

dispute the existence of a bond with the 'conventional style' of the Italian
Renaissance. 8
Among the forerunners in comparative research, the great poet and
critic, Costis Palamas (1859-1943) must be included. He was heralded an
intellectual leader of the '80s generation and bequeathed to us a number
of important observations on the influence exerted among Greek poets
and foreigners. 9 Nevertheless, it should be noted that for Costis Palamas,
the Greek genius could only be captured by displaying a bias towards
popular tradition, contempt for foreign ways and a rehabilitation of the
national heritage, with particular emphasis on the Byzantine legacy.
Other viewpoints of a comparative nature, such as that of Ilias Voutieridis,
who was particularly active intellectually in the early decades of the 20th
century, were also expressed although they were of an empirical and
amateur character.

The Birth of a Discipline: Ambiguities and Limits

Comparative Literature appeared officially in Greece in the 1930s. The

long presence of C. Th. Dimaras and the doctrines he had developed

8. K r i a r a s considers that even inferior C r e t a n works possess a 'popular colour',

a 'national c h a r a c t e r ' which has roots in the Byzantine cultural heritage. Never­
theless, as a Byzantine heritage, he perceives not only elements surviving from
popular literature b u t also some intellectual notions derived from the e r u d i t e
tradition. See by this author, « Ο λαϊκότροπος χαρακτήρας της κρητικής λογοτεχνίας.
Οι λογοτεχνίες της Αναγέννησης και η βυζαντινή λαϊκή π α ρ ά δ ο σ η » [The popularising
character in Cretan literature. Literature of the Renaissance a n d the Byzantine
popular tradition], Κρητικά Χρονικά, vol. 7(1953)1, p. 298-314; b y the same author,
«Η γραμματολογική τοποθέτηση της βυζαντινής δημώδους και της κρητικής λογοτε­
χνίας» [A historical a n d literary evaluation of popular Byzantine literature a n d
C r e t a n literature], Νέα Εστία vol. 58 (1955), p. 1554-1557. Cf. ANNA TABAKI, Le théâtre
néohellénique. Genèse et formation. Ses composantes sociales, idéologiques et
esthétiques, Paris, EHESS, 1995, vol. I (Diffusion Septentrion, Presses Universitaires,
Thèse à la carte, Lille 2001), p. 51 ff.
9. ZACHARIAS I. SIAFLÉKIS, "La présence de la Littérature Comparée en Grèce",
Comparative Literature Worldwide : Issues and Methods, Editor TANIA FRANCO
CARVALHAL, Porto Alegre 1997, p. 253.

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dominated the intellectual life of the country, moving gradually from his
'shifts of interest' towards a 'history of ideas' and later 'history of
consciences', a term he coined himself.10 Dimaras, of his own accord
pursued the French School in what was known as Literary History
(histoire littéraire), and was instructed by Gustave Lanson. As one of the
founders and instigators of the National Hellenic Research Foundation
(NHRF), he introduced into the Centre for Neohellenic Research the
instruments for comparative research when he was Director in the 1960s,
through an appraisal of the major works on Modern Greek studies.11
Although moderate and discrete, C. Th. Dimaras's strategy in the
Foundation did produce some tangible results: the creation of research
programmes of the CNR, making provisions for grants through the
National Foundation for Scholarships and his appointment at the Sorbonne
in the 1970s as Director of the Neohellenic Institute.
Moreover this success helped to increase his influence on later
generations. The broad scope of his activities was precisely what made a
striking difference while the specificity of his contribution differentiated
him from other acclaimed researchers, such as Emmanouil Kriaras, Linos
Politis, Stylianos Alexiou, or Alkis Anghelou, who through their works and
academic positions also played a key role in comparative research in
Greece. Among these literati, it was Kriaras (a student in his youth of
Jean-Marie Carré and of Paul Van Tieghem at the Sorbonne and auditor of
Paul Hazard at the Collège de France) who first occupied at the Aristotle
University of Thessalonika a Chair created after his recommendation and
which was based on the French model for 'General and Comparative
Literature [of Modern Europe]'. In January 1968, the Military Junta
forced him to abandon the post. Following the fall of the dictatorship, the

10. See « Ω ς η διψώσα έλαφος...». Interview with C. T H . DIMARAS, Σύγχρονα Θέμα­

τα, special issue 35-36-37 (Dec. 1988), p. 24. Cf. ANNA TABAKI, " L a méthode
comparatiste d a n s l ' œ u v r e de C. Th. Dimaras", Synthesis, XX, 1993, Bucharest, p.
95. Also my essay " Κ . T. D i m a r a s " , Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic
Tradition. Editor G r a h a m Speake, Volume I, A-K, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers,
London-Chicago, 2000, p. 478-481.
11. ANNA TABAKI, " L a méthode comparatiste d a n s l ' œ u v r e de C.Th. Dimaras", p. 97.

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Chair was given to Alkis Anghelou (1975-1984). Thus a wide circle had
12
been drawn.
Before passing on another level of reflection, I feel there are two points
worth bringing to one's attention. Firstly, despite the initiatives taken by
a core of few intellectuals who were active in the 30s and 40s, these works
were largely contested by an academic majority who remained con­
servative and essentially introverted:
For m e personally - D i m a r a s confessed- there w e r e moments w h e n I felt
something like remorse w h e n I saw with what coldness our established culture
regarded research on foreign sources of such a n d such a work, foreign
influences on such and such a writer. But first, w e have good guides along this
path - Palamas at the beginning, a n d for always. Second, w e w e r e young then,
this b r a n c h w a s also young a n d attracted u s because of its original aspect and
new ideas. Our concerns a n d impatience seemed justified when faced with this
sudden abundance, this brooding over the study and analysis of our literature
and history as it w a s conducted by our country : w e k n e w already from the
masters we had chosen, that our culture belonged to a larger cycle, not only in
terms of time, that is towards antiquity, but also of space, that is the Western
World and as a result in order to perceive the meaning in our expression, it w a s
indispensable to know about its counterparts a b r o a d . 1 3

This says it all: not only the method that prevailed for decades (study
of sources and influences received), but also the precise area for the scope
of possible research. Apparently, two paths were deemed legitimate: that
which united Modern Hellenism with ancient tradition and that which
confronted Western culture. Naturally these schools of thought were
inherited from the nationalist ideology of the 19th century, traces of which
I have tried to reveal at the beginning of my analysis.
In retrospective, this vision lead to considerable restrictions in the
comparative domain ; it was an inflicted mutilation, ideologically expli­
cable but which removed from Greek science a part of its flexibility. This

12. Cf. m y study, « Η Συγκριτική Φιλολογία στην Ελλάδα: ένας σημερινός απολογι­
σμός» [Comparative Literature in Greece. A Contemporary Appraisal] Σύγκριση /
Comparaison, 10 (1999), p. 21.
13. C. TH. DIMARAS, «Συγκριτισμός» [Comparativeness], Μνήμων, 8 (1980), p. Π7-Π8.
Cf. ANNA TABAKI, " L a méthode comparatiste d a n s l'oeuvre de C. Th. Dimaras", p. 98.

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flexibility was due to its fortunate position as a centre for different cultural
practices that over the centuries had intermingled on territory under
Hellenic influence.
Without wanting to underestimate a posteriori the other channels of
intellectual communication, it is certain that Greek comparative science was
for a long time frustrated in its right and duty to contemplate neighbouring
cultural traditions or to confront them (namely Arabic, Turkish, Slavic and to
a large extent Balkan), and this occurred even though Hellenic culture found
itself consciously or not, in constant dialogue with them. This reasoning was
the same for the other South-East European countries, which shows that the
Greeks do not know their own neighbour as well as the great Western
cultures, 14 without mentioning the non-existence of studies which could have
interpreted certain parallelisms generated by the essentially multicultural
specificity of South-East Europe. 15 Studies that reveal a comparative interest
in India 1 6 or the Far East are even scarcer, while those which show an interest
in other continents are practically non-existent, with the exception of the
Maghreb. This is all the more remarkable if one considers that in the last few

14. Cf. TABAKI, « Η Συγκριτική Φιλολογία στην Ελλάδα: ένας σημερινός απολογι­
σμός», ρ. 24.
15. See relevant remarks made recently by other colleagues, such as VICTOR
IVANOVICI, "Pour u n comparatisme des Balkans", as well as b y myself "Pour u n e
reconsidération comparative des courants esthétiques", in Relations Gréco-roumaines.
Interculturalite et identité mationale. Sous la direction de P. M. KITROMILIDÈS et ANNA
TABAK i / Greek Romanian Relations. Intercultural ism and National Identity. Edited by
P. M. KITROMILIDES a n d ANNA TABAKI, Institute for Neohellenic Research, The National
Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens 2004, p. 105-111 a n d 95-104, together with useful
suggestions b y R. L. STANTCHÉVA, "L'étude des littératures balkaniques modernes en
contexte européen", 16th International Congress on Comparative Literature (Pretoria,
13-19 August 2000), which highlighted the existence of certain parallelisms. R.
Stanchéva notes with reason that "without forgetting the similar historic rhythm of
Balkan cultures, the parallels have become possible d u e to contact with other European
Literature". That is why the recently founded (Pretoria 2000) Research Committee on
Central and Southeast European Literatures of AILC/ICLA, presided by Prof. MONICA
SPIRIDON, fills a gap, which will in all likelihood explore exhaustively a collective work
which is both fertile and interesting.
16. Let u s r e t a i n though, the case of D e m e t r i u s Galanos, a precurser in the

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years we have seen a new focus on Mediterranean Studies17 and American

Literature, which has also been officially incorporated into University
curricula.
The generation of C. Th. Dimaras remained firmly attached to its
principles. It was unaffected by the 'crisis in Comparative Literature'. 18
The new tendencies that were to determine literary theory, structuralism
and poetics made a rather belated appearance in Greece, towards the end
of the 1970s and were imported by students engaged in doctoral studies in
Universities outside Greece. Yorgos Kehagioglou, for example, applied the
Vladimir Propp 'morphological' method 19 in his doctoral thesis, to analyze
a Byzantine and post-Byzantine text. He then proceeded with
'experimentations', as he called them, applying propositions put forward
by Claude Bremond and A.-J. Greimas for narrative (Al. Papadiamantis)
and poetic texts (A. Embiricos). 20 Eratosthenis Kapsomenos was one of

European context, who practised as a translator a n d lexicographer (Comparative

Dictionary for Persian-Hindu-Arab-Greek) towards the end of the 18th - b e g i n n i n g
of the 19th century, of Nikolaos Kephalas, finally of Lorentzos Mavilis and
Constantine Theotokis, H e p t a n e s i a n Letters, a n d who were the translators of the
Mahabharata at the b e g i n n i n g of the 20th century.
17. See as an example VASSILIKI LALAGIANNI (ed.), Femmes Écrivains en
Méditerranée, Publisud Publishers, 1999. Also, TAKTS THEODOROPOULOS - RAMA
PoLYCANDRiOTi, La Méditerranée grecque, in Les Représentations de la
Méditerranée, u n d e r the direction of ROBERT ILBERT et THIERRY FABRE, vol. 6. coll.
"Monde M é d i t e r r a n é e n " , Maisonneuve & Larose, Paris 2000. Cf. Expressions et
représentations littéraires de la Méditerranée: Iles et Ports, 16e-20e siècles. Actes
du Colloque, Centre Culturel Européen de Delphes, 5-6 novembre 1999. Edited by
Z.I. SiAFLEKis a n d RANIA POLYCANDRIOTI, Patakis Publishers, Athens 2002.
18. Dimaras followed the n e w tendencies in literary criticism and theory but he
disapproved of t h e m and declared his absolute loyalty to diachrony. See TABAKI, "La
méthode comparatiste d a n s l'oeuvre de C. Th. Dimaras", p. 99-101, w h e r e there is the
respective documentation.
19. YORGOS KEHAGIOGLOU, Κριτική έκδοση της Ιστορίας Πτωχολέοντος. Θέματα Υστερο­
βυζαντινής και Μεταβυζαντινής Λογοτεχνίας [A Critical edition of the History of
Ptocholeon. Subjects of the Late a n d Post Byzantine Literature] doctoral thesis,
Thessaloniki, 1978.
20. YORGOS KEHAGIOGLOU, «Ελληνικές τύχες της Μορφολογίας του παραμυθιού»
[Greek fortunes in the 'Morphology of the Folktale']. A d d e n d u m to the Greek

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the most important and active representatives (both in the academic

context of Ioannina University and outside the university) of semiology in
Greece. 2 1 In the 1980s, the concepts of intertextuality and the aesthetics of
reception were introduced into comparative literature but these
innovations did not win many followers. Despite everything, the classic
formula of the type 'X and Y' seemed to persist, 2 2 as has been borne out
by recent studies and many theses on the subject, albeit injected with a
new issue. 2 3

The Present State of Affairs and the Future

Today, however, productivity in this area is indeed apparent at numerous

levels, not only within the institutional framework itself but also in
written publications where a renewed and deeper reasoning has
crystallized. Moreover this has occurred even though a department or
section devoted to Comparative Literature is absent, all the more
surprising as academic bodies in Greece have been multiplying (the
establishment of new universities in the periphery, the creation of new
departments in the large universities), as have the posts for the teaching
of Comparative Literature. These posts either have been created in
traditional disciplines, namely the Departments of Modern Greek
Literature (at the University of Athens, Thessalonika, Ioannina, more
recently at the Democritus University of Komotini), and at the University
of Patras or in Departments for the Study of Foreign Literature (French,
English, Italian, German, Spanish etc.). Attaching Comparative

Translation of Morphology of the Folktale by VLADIMIR PROPP. T r a n s l a t e d b y

ARISTEA PARISSI ( K a r d a m i t s a s , A t h e n s 1987, p . 331-368).

21. See b y this author, Κώδικες και Σημασίες [Codes a n d m e a n i n g s ] , Arsenidis,

Athens 1990, in which h e also m a k e s a n appraisal of semiological studies in Greece.
22. ZACHARIAS I. SIAFLÉKIS, "La présence d e la Littérature Comparée e n Grèce", p. 356.
23. In this context, among t h e d e e p roots of a traditional comparatism a n d
tendencies towards renewal, some recent theses can b e placed, such a s that b y
ALEXANDRA SAMOUIL, Ο βυδός του καδρεφτη. Ο André Gide και η ημερολογιακή μυθο­
πλασία στην Ελλάδα [The depth of the mirror. A n d r é Gide a n d t h e fictional journal
in Greece], University of Crete Press, Herakleion 1998.

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Literature to Foreign Literature Departments has been a widespread

practice and continues to be so absorbing many comparatists in the
process. The usual model followed in teaching has been as follows:
French and Comparative Literature, American and Comparative Literature,
Spanish and Comparative Literature and so on. In some institutions, such
as the University of Thessalonika and even Athens, the courses offered
also cover the theoretical aspect of Literature as well as Comparative
Poetry. In addition, with the emergence of some relatively new
Departments, such as a Department of Foreign Civilizations or even the
more dynamic Department of Theatre Studies, Comparative Literature
has been entered their curricula. Moreover, attention should de drawn
to two more cases: firstly, the University of Athens whose Department of
Theatre Studies offers, in addition to numerous courses on Comparative
Theatre, a course on the Criticism and Theory of Literature, and
secondly, the University of Patras where Stylistics, the Theory of
Literature and Semiology in Dramatic texts are taught. New interests,
such as translation studies, which have been housed in the Departments
of Foreign Literature and Language, 2 4 as well as in the Interpreting
School, at the Ionian University in Corfu, offer courses in the Theory of
Literature and Translation. 2 5 The introduction of a sense of comparative
approach in the School for Mediterranean Studies at the University of the
Aegean is also significant. Finally, the integration of anthropological
studies (Social, Cultural Anthropology etc.) in the University system
with the establishment of independent departments (Aegean University
at Mytilene, Democritus University at Komotini and Alexandroupolis,

24. It should b e noted, that following an initiative b y the University of Athens

(French L a n g u a g e a n d L i t e r a t u r e D e p a r t m e n t ) , an Inter-university, Interdepart­
mental Project for Postgraduate Studies in Translation Studies, has b e e n established
as a pilot p r o g r a m m e a n d whose first phase 1998-2000 w a s f u n d e d by the E u r o p e a n
Union.
25. See as a n example VASSILIS KOUTSIVITIS, Θεωρία της Μετάφρασης [Theory of
Translation], Athens 1994 ; MARIA TSOUTSOURA, Μετάφραση και Ερμηνευτική
[Translation a n d H e r m e n e u t i c s ] , Athens-Corfu 1997 ; Centre [for the Study] of the
Greek L a n g u a g e , Η γλώσσα της λογοτεχνίας και η γλώσσα της μετάφρασης [The
L a n g u a g e of Literature a n d the L a n g u a g e of Translation], Thessaloniki 1998.

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the University of Thessaly at Volos) has created favourable conditions for

the introduction of Comparative Literature courses as well as courses
which focus on Cultural Studies and Women Studies.
Notwithstanding this evident growth in institutional structures, it would
be interesting to examine the actual research areas with which the
comparatisi community in Greece is preoccupied. It appears that, apart from
the multitude of different methods being used, there has been a shift in time,
a new chronological focus. Whereas in the past, the 20th century was the
culminating point and constituted the main study for the majority of new
research projects and doctoral theses, 26 at present the 18th and 19th centuries
are being re-evaluated and revised. 27 Not only have time barriers become
more flexible but we can also see new orientations. We have the beginnings
of a serious attempt to study the relations with Arabic Literature, for
example (in particular by Yorgos Kehagioglou) or even the unusual path that
translation in South Eastern Europe has taken. 28 Hitherto, unknown literary
genres are being examined, such as personal or autobiographical

26. A n interesting example is provided by the thesis submitted b y THEOCHAROULA

NIFTANIDOU, Georges Perec et Nikos-Gabriel Pentzikis: Une poétique du minimal
(January 2000, Paris III - Sorbonne Nouvelle, u n d e r the supervision of Prof. Jean
Bessière).
27. I would like to restrict myself to a succinct example, provided b y Micros
PECHLIVANOS, a follower of Hans Robert Jauss, who examined in his thesis the Εκδοχές
της νεωτερικότητας στην κοινωνία του Γένους: Νικόλαος Μαυροκορδάτος-Ιώσηπος Μοι-
διόδαξ-Αδαμάντιος Κοραής [Aspects of Modernity in the Society of Ghenos : Nikolaos
Mavrokordatos. Iossipos Moisiodax. Adamantios Kora'is], Thessaloniki 1999. For a
background three 'gardens' are either real or fictitious, the phanariot garden of Mavro­
kordatos, the 'newtonien' garden, the fictitious garden of Moisiodax and finally the
Parisian garden of the Tuileries w h e r e Coray would often walk, the author tries to
reinstate in comparative t e r m s the debate b e t w e e n the old a n d the modern in Greek
culture d u r i n g the age of the Enlightenment (first half of the 18th century - early
decades of the 19th century).
28. I would like to refer to my own study, "Identité et diversité culturelle: Le
mouvement des traductions d a n s le Sud-Est de l'Europe (XVIIIe siècle - début du
XIXe)", Σύγκριση /Comparaison, 9 (1998), p. 71-91, which also looks retrospectively at
the issue.

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discourse. 29 There is likewise a tendency to move more systematically

towards issues of comparative aesthetics; several researchers (both senior
and junior) have orientated their research towards narratology,30 the study
of genres (in particular the novel31 and the short story), issues in poetry
(poems in prose or pure poetry), 32 or towards the literary myth.33 Domains
formerly neglected, such as Children's literature or Women's literature, are
now developing rapidly.34 Research on the theme of otherness, the image of
the other, has flourished without though overlooking more theoretical
issues, 35 or failing to review the intellectual background of their authors,
as has been the case with some more recent works. 36

29. See RANIA POLYCANDRIOTI, Étude de lecriture autobiographique, fondée sur

des textes contemporains des femmes écrivains en Grèce et en France, doctoral
thesis, Paris Ili-Sorbonne Nouvelle, 1990.
30. I would like to mention in the context of translation the work of FRANZ K.
STANZEL, Theorie des Erzählens b y KYRIAKI CHRYSOMALLI-HENRICH (University Studio
Press, Thessaloniki 1999). M r s Chrysomalli-Henrich, who lives and writes in
Germany, examines narratological issues in her own research.
31. See as a n example the doctoral thesis of SOPHIA DENISSI, To ελληνικό ιστορικό
μυδιστόρημα και ο Sir Walter Scott (1830-1880) [The Greek historical novel a n d Sir
Walter Scott (1830-1880)], Kastaniotis, Athens 1994.
32. I would like to mention in this context the thesis of AGORI GREKOU, Ηκαδαρή
ποίηση στην Ελλάδα από τον Σολωμό στον Σεφέρη [ P u r e Poetry in Greece from
Solomos to Seferis], Alexandria Publishers, Athens 2000.
33. I will restrict myself to two examples: Z. I. SIAFLEKIS, Η εύδραυστη αλήδεια.
Εισαγωγή στη δεωρία του λογοτεχνικού μύδου [The Fragile Truth. Introduction the
theory of the literary myth] Gutenberg, Athens 1994. Also, ANGELICA MARIE
KOUMANOUDIS, Le mythe de Pan dans la littérature grecque et française des XIXe et
XXe siècles, a thesis which w a s vivaed in F e b r u a r y 2000 at Paris IV-Sorbonne
(under the supervision of Pierre Brunei).
34. ANNA ΤΑΒΑΚΙ, « Η Συγκριτική Φιλολογία στην Ελλάδα: ένας σημερινός απολογι­
σμός», ρ. 26, 32.
35. Ζ. I. SIAFLEKIS, Συγκριτισμός και Ιστορία της Λογοτεχνίας [Comparativeness and
the History of Literature], Epikairotita, Athens 1988 ; by the same author, « Η χαμέ­
νη λογοτεχνικότητα και οι μεταμορφώσεις του λογοτεχνικού συγκριτισμου» [Lost
Literacy a n d transformations in literary comparatism] Σύγκριση / Comparaison, 10
(1999), p. 7-17.
36. See, for example, LISY TSIRIMOKOU, Εσωτερική ταχύτητα. Δοκίμια για τη λογοτε-

7ΐ
 ANNA TABAKI

Theatre studies have today taken a new turn in the academic milieu
giving rise to many comparative theatre applications (semiological
37
approaches, theory of aesthetics and reception - Jauss, the study of the
38 39 40
notions of theatre as a spectacle and mass media, sex/gender, colour,
re-examination of the ancient tragedy using 20th century theories,
reconsideration of theatre translation in the light of contemporary
41
trends).
As a form of epilogue, I will say a few words on translation, the child
prodigy of classical Comparative Literature. At the centre of inter-
cultural relations, translation has followed a dynamic course within the
context of Greek comparatism and continues to evolve. As a versatile
entity, many research teams are engaged in the study of translation and
translation theory, covering a wide range of issues and converging
interests, from the history of the theory of translation to Translation

χνία [Internal Speed. Essays on literature] Agra, Athens 2000, the whole of the work
sketches the comparative trajectory of the author d u r i n g the 20 years of her university
career.
37. I refer as an example of the latest works of Yorgos P. PEFANIS, TO δεατρο και
τα σύμβολα. Διαδικασίες συμβόλισης του δραματικού λόγου [The T h e a t r e and
Symbols. The Process of symbolisation on Dramatic Speech], Ellinika G r a m m a t a
Publishers, Athens 1999, as well as recent work b y DMITRIS TSATSOULIS, Σημειολογικές
προσεγγίσεις του δεατρικού φαινομένου. Θεωρία και κριτική ανάλυση της σύγχρονης
δεατρικής πρακτικής [Semiological Approaches to the theatrical p h e n o m e n o n . Theory
a n d Critical Analysis of Contemporary Theatrical Practice], Ellinika G r a m m a t a
Publishers, Athens 1999.
38. THODOROS GRAMMATAS, Θέατρο για παιδιά και νεανικό κοινό [Fantasyland.
T h e a t r e for Young Audiences], G u t e n b e r g Publishers, Athens 1996.
39. SAVAS PATSALIDIS, TO 'άλλο' δεατρο. Σπουδή στις φεμινιστικές και αφρο-αμερι-
κανικες δοκιμές [The " O t h e r " theatre. A Study of Feminist a n d Afro-American
Performances], Tolidis Publishers, Athens 1993.
40. Among others, SAVAS PATSALIDIS, (Εν)τάσεις και (Δια)στάσεις. Η Ελληνική Τραγω­
δία και η δεωρία του Εικοστού αιώνα [Tensions/Tendencies and Dissensions/Attitudes.
Greek Tragedy and 20th century Theory], Gutenberg Publishers, Athens 1997.
41. WALTER PUCHNER, «Για μια θεωρία της θεατρικής μετάφρασης. Σύγχρονες σκέψεις
και τοποθετήσεις και η εφαρμογή τους στις μεταφράσεις του αρχαίου δράματος» [For a
theory on theatre translation. Contemporary reflections a n d considerations and their
application to translations of ancient drama] special edition, Athens 1995, p. 107-149.

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studies (Centre for Neohellenic Research at the FNRS, Centre for Literary
Translation at the French Institute of Athens, an active group from which
the 'National Centre for Literary Translation (EKEMEL) was later
founded under the auspices of the National Book Centre etc.). 4 2
We can therefore conclude without exaggeration that the ambiguities of
the past are slowly disappearing and there are perspectives that seem to
hold promise for the future as regards Comparative Literature in Greece.

The Risks of Globalisation

While a favourable climate is being created in the domain of Greek

comparative studies, the crucial question is on the direction that it will
eventually take? Will globalisation bring together all of these disparate
elements and to what extent ? Will it, or even should it, determine the
present and future of Comparative Literature in Greece ?
At the beginning of my analysis, I stressed within reason the frontier
position of the Hellenic culture as well as its ancient character. In this
respect, there are two parameters worth mentioning and which are
undoubtedly at the origin of an intrinsic peculiarity.
Firstly, let us return to the frontier position : it seems to me that at the
moment, the idea of cultural corridors which was formerly explored in a
diachronic study on South-Eastern Europe is highly pertinent in view of
the multiculturalism that is rapidly sweeping in waves across Greek
territory, transforming from one day to the next everyday life, as well as
collective imagination, and shaping thus Greek literary fiction. Greece is
in the grips of a crisis in cultural values, and is surrounded by a
polymorphism that has at times overhauled with a certain aggression the
traditional way of life, and has as a result influenced considerably the
Greek way of thinking. Coming to terms with this otherness/diversity is
henceforth an urgent need. The study of literature, in this case Greek
Comparative Literature, is not only affected by globalisation, which
provides almost infinite access to a global society of infinite information,

42. ANNA TABAKI, « Η Συγκριτική Φιλολογία στην Ελλάδα: ένας σημερινός απολογι­
σμός», ρ. 26-27.

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 ANNA TABAKI

but it makes it vulnerable to numerous encroachments as there were

discussed at length during the Pretoria 2000 Congress of the AILC/ICLA.
One such encroachment that is extremely visible in Greece has been the
phenomenon of multiculturalism in an acute form. Frontier encroach-
ments between European countries (North-South), between Balkan
countries but also between continents (East-West), is, according to my
opinion, today the major issue concerning the Greek case, as opposed to
the problems common throughout the world (that is in developed
countries), imposed by the media and information technology.
It is, therefore, necessary that Greek comparative science, given the
vast scope of issues it encompasses, abandons its former stagnation. It
must become involved in all types of literary interactions, acquaint itself
better with its Mediterranean and South-Eastern neighbours as well as
the literary peculiarities created by contemporary social and cultural
practices. As for the second parameter concerning the ancient character of
the Hellenic civilization, it is evidently not just a cheap antidote or a
cliché. "In taking the road to Troizina", 43 we should concede to the notion
of heritage, its own dynamism and freedom, a critical dimension, a fresh
and new approach which preserves its own flavour.
We must also bear in mind that in this heady acquisition of knowledge
without limits, leading to comparative practices almost without evident
restrictions, it is also constructive as well as indispensable to re-establish
our ties with the past, to look at its comparative study, enriching thus
profoundly our vision of reality. As well as using new theoretical
instruments, a visit to the past will enhance our vigilance towards a
monstrous unifying globalisation, capable of sweeping away national
traditions and causing them to disappear. By gaining awareness of the
richness of Pandora's Box and the essentially multicultural nature of
today's society, we can then take note of the different literary layers in
time and space, and Comparative Literature in Greece could secure the
present and build its future for the new millenium.

43. Column signed by CHARLES DÉDÉYAN, published in the Le Figaro Littéraire,

in the issue of 2nd March 2000.

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