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VOL. 3

Session C16

Le concept de territoires dans le

Paléolithique supérieur européen

Edited by

François Djindjian
Janusz Kozlowski
Nuno Bicho

BAR International Series 1938

2009
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Proceedings of the XV World Congress of the International Union for Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences
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 CULTURAL REGIONALIZATION IN THE PALAEOLITHIC
OF THE MIDDLE DANUBE BASIN AND WESTERN BALKANS
Dušan MIHAILOVIĆ, Bojana MIHAILOVIĆ

Abstract: The territoriality in the Paleolithic of the Danube basin and western Balkans will be considered from two aspects: a) from
the aspect of cultural differentiation and cultural and social interactions between bearers of various Paleolithic cultures and facies
and b) from the aspect of system of settling, which human communities practiced in the given periods. Most recent investigations
indicate that Balkan Peninsula in the past had the role of a) transitional area, b) area where influences from the Mediterranean and
central Europe are clearly delimited and c) area characterized by entirely distinct cultural manifestations. Special attention will be
paid to the cultural and social basis of settlement system within more restricted and wider regional level.
Key words: Territory, Balkans, Upper Palaeolithic, Danube basin

Résumé: Le territoire du bassin moyen du Danube des Balkans occidentaux à l’époque paléolithique peut être considéré sous deux
aspects: a) d’un point de vue de la différenciation culturelle et des interactions sociales entre les porteurs des diverses cultures et
facies paléolithiques et b) du point de vue de la localisation des sites qui ont été occupés par les groupes humains au cours des
différentes périodes du paléolithique. Les résultats des recherches les plus récentes indiquent que la péninsule balkanique dans le
passé a joué le rôle de a) région de passage, b) de région où les influences de la Méditerranéennes et de l’Europe centrale sont
clairement délimitées et c) une région caractérisée par des manifestations culturelles totalement différentes. Une attention spéciale
est donnée aux bases sociales et culturelles du système de localisation des sites à une échelle régionale plus large ou plus restreinte.
Mots-clés: Territoire, Balkans, Paléolithique supérieur, bassin du Danube

INTRODUCTION central and southeast Europe. But, we are going to point

Studying the relations between the Danube basin and the
Mediterranean in the Palaeolithic means the compre-
hension of the role played by the Balkan Peninsula in that
period. The distance between the Adriatic coast and the
Sava basin in the western parts of the Balkans generally
does not exceed couple of hundreds of kilometers (fig.
7.1). Nevertheless, because of the small degree of
investigations the connections between the Danube basin
and the Mediterranean in the Palaeolithic are not
sufficiently explained. Two groups of unsolved questions
concerning the study of the cultural connections between
these two regions could be distinguished. First, the
question could be raised whether the differences noticed
in the material culture in the certain periods of the
Palaeolithic are the consequence of the regional cultural
tradition, different life conditions or they are caused by
some other reasons. Second, the groups from the
neighboring regions in the past times often passed through
the Balkan Peninsula and sometimes stayed there. The
role of the Balkans in studying the transition from the
Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic are well known
considering the importance of the Danube route and the
fact that the earliest Upper Palaeolithic industries are
confirmed just in the Balkans. Also, some authors are of
the opinion that in the period of the Last Glacial
Maximum the Balkans represented some kind of refuge
for the bearers of the Gravettian culture from the north
(Kozlowski, 1999, 2005) and there are also opinions that
in the late glacial, in the Epigravettian, cultural influences
spread in the opposite direction, i.e. from the south
towards the north of the peninsula (Djindjian et al. 1999;
Kozlowski, 2005). We are not going, in this work, to deal
with all the factors, which could have influenced the
cultural differentiation of the Palaeolithic cultures in the
out to what extent the recent investigations of the
Palaeolithic in the central Balkans made possible better
understanding of these phenomena.
THE MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC
According to the evidence available so far certain cultural
regionalization could be encountered in the Middle
Palaeolithic of the Balkans. At the sites in the
northwestern Croatia, the Charentian is existing in the
early phase and typical Mousterian in the late phase. In
the northern Bosnia typical Mousterian with more or less
emphasized Levallois elements is encountered in the early
phase (Zobište – Montet White et al. 1986) as well as in
the late phase. At the coast and in its hinterland as well as
in the south Europe were investigated many rich Middle
Palaeolithic sites where prevailed layers with different
variants of Pontinian, so-called Micro-Mousterian and
Denticulated Mousterian encountered for instance in
Mujina Pećina (Karavanić and Bilich-Kamenjarin, 1997;
Rink et al. 2002) and at Crvena Stijena (Basler, 1975;
Ivanova, 1979). In the eastern Balkans are well studied
the industries with leaf-shaped points of the Muselievo
Samuilitsa type while Typical Mousterian was registered
at the most of important sites in the northern Bulgaria
(Ivanova and Sirakova 1995).
The preliminary results of the recent investigations of the
Middle Palaeolithic in Serbia, Montenegro and
Macedonia change this picture to a certain extent. At
Petrovaradinska fortress near Novi Sad (northern Serbia)
were investigated two Middle Palaeolithic horizons that
contained an industry with prevailing Charentian elements
but with the Levallois component also present (Marković

93
LE CONCEPT DE TERRITOIRES DANS LE PALEOLITHIQUE SUPERIEUR EUROPEEN

Fig. 7.1. Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Palaeolithic sites in Balkans, mentioned in the text: 1 – Vindija,
2 – Mujina Pećina, 3 – Zobište, 4 – Kadar, 5 – Petrovaradinska fotress, 6 – Šalitrena Pećina, 7 – At, 8 – Climente I, II, Cuina
Turcului, 9 – Velika Balanica, Mala Balanica, 10 – Kozarnika, 11 – Temnata, 12 – Crvena Stijena, 13 – Medena Stijena,
14 – Trebački Krš, 15 – Smolućka Pećina, 16 – Hadži Prodanova Pećina, 17 – Golema Pesht, 18 – Klisoura

et al. 2004; Mihailović 2006) (fig. 7.2). In the caves
Velika and Mala Balanica in Sićevo near Niš (south
Serbia) were investigated several Middle Palaeolithic
layers. In the lower layers in Velika Balanica was
confirmed the rich industry of the Charentian type
(similar finds were also encountered in Mala Balanica)
while Typical Mousterian was registered in the upper
layers. In Hadži Prodanova Pećina near Ivanjica (west
Serbia) were also investigated many Middle Palaeolithic
horizons but with small amount of finds (Mihailović and
Mihailović 2006). In the lower horizons were encountered
the Levallois artifacts while in the upper horizons were
discovered mostly the quartz finds.
It turned out that in the area of the south Pannonia and the
central Balkans could be expected cultural phenomena,
which appear in the neighboring regions. The industry
from Petrovaradinska fortress corresponds from the
cultural and technological point of view to the industries
of the Tata-Erd type while the finds from Hadži
Prodanova Pećina confirm the previous assumptions
about the distribution of the Typical Mousterian. Also the
upper layers at Velika Balanica confirm that Typical
Mousterian was the leading industrial complex in the
Middle Palaeolithic of the Balkans. Large amount of
sidescrapers and products indicating the use of Levallois
technology was found in these layers.
On the other hand, it turned out that at some sites appear
together many elements characteristic of the different
cultural and technological traditions. It is most prominent
at Petrovaradinska fortress where elements related to
three technological traditions were found together. The
Charentian component is most prominent, there is also the
Levallois technology and there were also found bifacially
chipped backed sidescrapers. All this indicates the high
level of cultural unity in the entire area of the Carpathian
basin. It is evident that in the south Pannonia took place
the merging of cultural and technological traditions from
the neighboring regions.

94
 D. MIHAILOVIĆ & B. MIHAILOVIĆ: CULTURAL REGIONALIZATION IN THE PALAEOLITHIC OF THE MIDDLE DANUBE BASIN…

Fig. 7.2. Stone artefacts from Petrovaradinska fortress

Particularly surprising is the fact that in the central
Balkans are confirmed the industries, which could be
directly related to the Charentian. The Charentian
elements occur at Petrovaradinska fortress in association
with the Levallois technology while at Velika Balanica
they occur without the Levallois artifacts. It should be
emphasized that the Charentian of the southeast Europe is
so far best documented in the northwestern Croatia where
it is dated at around 130.000 years ago (Simek & Smith,
1997). When the central Balkans is concerned it is not
clear for the time being whether it was a phenomenon of
an earlier date or it was a regional facies, which could be

95
LE CONCEPT DE TERRITOIRES DANS LE PALEOLITHIQUE SUPERIEUR EUROPEEN
synchronous with the Typical Mousterian in Bulgaria. In
any case, the distinct style in tool production indicates
that it is a cultural phenomenon and not an occurrence
caused by the settling at this very site.
The fact that quartz artifact are very abundant at many
Middle Palaeolithic sites in the south Pannonia and in the
central Balkans could be explained in a different way.
They appear at Petrovaradinska fortress and in Velika
Balanica within the Charentian context while in the upper
layers of Hadži Prodanova Pećina and particularly at the
site Golema Pesht in Macedonia (whose cultural and
chronological position is not yet reliably established –
Shalamanov-Korobar in press) they appear outside that
context. The finds made of quartz and quartzite are scarce
at the sites in the neighboring regions, even in
Montenegro. Nevertheless, the occurrence of the quartz
industries in the central Balkans is most probably not
culturally based. The intense use of this raw material was
certainly influenced by the availability of resources and
the settlement pattern. It is well confirmed in Hadži
Prodanova Pećina where the quartz finds appear together
with very worn-out tools made of high quality flint.
THE EARLY UPPER PALAEOLITHIC
The rather abrupt transition from the Middle to the Upper
Palaeolithic could be noticed in the central and eastern
Balkans and along the entire Adriatic coast. This
transition happened in this area very early (before 40th
millennium BP) and at the most of the sites on the
Adriatic coast there was complete break in the settlement
sequence while at the sites in the north of the west and
east Balkans the Middle Palaeolithic is followed by the
Aurignacian. Judging by the dates obtained for Mališina
Stijena (Radovanović 1986) and Smolućka Pećina
(Kaluđerović 1985) the possibility could not be excluded
that Middle Palaeolithic lived in the mountainous regions
somewhat longer (both sites are dated in the period before
38th millennium BP – Hedges et al. 1991). Because of that
we already emphasized the possibility that the expansion
of the Upper Palaeolithic along the coast and main river
communications was followed by retreat of human groups
in the inaccessible regions of the central Balkans that had
been only periodically inhabited in the preceding period
(Mihailović 1998a, 1998b).
In recent times the theory about the Danube corridor has
been brought into question (Conard et al. 2004). In
addition, it turned out that industries of the transitional
type (similar to Bohunician) where the Upper Palaeolithic
elements appeared even before the 45th millennium BP
occur at some sites in the Balkans (Temnata –
Drobniewicz et al. 2000). Nevertheless, if the bearers of
the Early Upper Palaeolithic cultures were modern
humans and that is still more probable, the very fact that
there is no chronological overlapping at the more
restricted regional level suggests the assumption that there
was not only ecological but also social competition
96
between the Neanderthal man and modern man
(Mihailovic 2004). Whether the consequence of this fact
was topographic and/or geographic delimitation between
these two populations is still unknown. Considering the
relatively late dates obtained for the finds of the
Neanderthal man from Vindija (Higham et al. 2006) and
absence of the initial Upper Palaeolithic in the
westernmost part of the Balkans this possibility should
not be disregarded.
Early Upper Palaeolithic is very insufficiently
investigated in the Balkans. The industries of the initial
Upper Palaeolithic were so far encountered only in
Bulgaria while the Aurignacian sites are randomly
distributed throughout the entire peninsula. It would be
interesting to check the chronological position of the 5a
horizon of Šalitrena Pećina, which has no close parallels
in the Early Upper Palaeolithic of the northern Balkans. In
this horizon was discovered a collection of the workshop
character that contained many cores and carinated
endscrapers but also the symmetrical blades made by the
extralocal raw materials as well as the unretouched
bladelets. In the industry, at least for the time being (as
investigations are still in the initial phase) are lacking
many elements of the Typical Aurignacian. In the 5a
horizon were encountered also two beads of the fossil
dentalium shell and the fact that dentalium beads were
registered in the Uluzzian layer at Klisura (Koumouzelis
et al. 2001) only confirm the importance of this shell in
the Early Upper Palaeolithic of the Balkans.
When the Aurignacian is concerned the impression is that
cultural differentiation within this techno complex could
be followed in the Balkans according to the geographic
latitude. The industries with more or less prominent
characteristics of the Typical Aurignacian have been
confirmed in Croatia, northern Bosnia and northern
Bulgaria. In the coastal zone was encountered the
Aurignacian with depleted characteristics and of
somewhat later date (Karavanić 2003). The exception of
this rule is only Klisoura where have been registered
many Aurignacian horizons spanning rather long period
of time (Koumouzelis et al. 2001). Aurignacian of the
Krems type related to the finds from the northern Banat
was also registered in the south Pannonia at the site At
near Vršac (Mihailović 1992) (fig. 7.3). In the industry
from this site were encountered elements of the Typical as
well as of the Krems Aurignacian. Whether it is the result
of mixed layers (as the finds have not been collected in
the course of regular excavations) or the cultural content
of the collection possibly reflects the differences in the
settlement at certain locations within this large area is not
possible to establish at this moment.
THE LATE UPPER PALAEOLITHIC
The relationship between central Europe and the
Mediterranean in the Late Upper Palaeolithic is almost
impossible to comprehend without great generalizations.
D. MIHAILOVIĆ & B. MIHAILOVIĆ: CULTURAL REGIONALIZATION IN THE PALAEOLITHIC OF THE MIDDLE DANUBE BASIN…

Fig. 7.3. Stone artefacts from At

97
LE CONCEPT DE TERRITOIRES DANS LE PALEOLITHIQUE SUPERIEUR EUROPEEN
Epigravettian is relatively well studied in the immediate
hinterland of the Adriatic coast (in Slovenia, Croatia and
Montenegro) while in the area of the Dinaric Alps, south
Pannonia and east Balkans it has been documented at only
few sites. Situation is even less favorable when the
Gravettian is concerned: the sites from this period were
encountered in Bulgaria and Greece (Drobniewicz et al.
1992; Kozłowski 1999; Tsanova 2003) while in the
central and western Balkans Gravettian was recorded with
certainty only in layer 4 in Šalitrena Pećina (Mihailović
and Mihailović in press).
In Šalitrena Pećina was recently collected rich Gravettian
industry consisting of several thousands of artifacts.
Among the cores were encountered typical prismatic
single-platform and double-platform cores for blades and
bladelets. The discovered tools include endscrapers on
blades and flakes, various types of burins, retouched
blades (including pointed blades) and combined tools (fig.
7.4). Among the backed tools prevail bilaterally retouched
points with thinned base as well as the double truncations
with back, similar to rectangles. In the considerably
smaller amount were registered classic Gravettian points
(one with rounded retouched base) and also the flechettes.
The elements, which could possibly indicate somewhat
later period are either scarce (shouldered points) or
completely absent (microlithic endscrapers, arched
bached bladelets and points, etc).
The industry from this site could be connected with the
Willendorfian and Pavlovian industries from middle
Europe, especially with the industry from layer 9 of
Willendorf (dated between 25.000 and 23.000 BP – Otte
et al. 1996). There are also substantial similarities with
the material from level IVb in the cave Kozarnika in
Bulgaria (26120 +/- 120 BP – Tsanova 2003) where were
encountered bilaterally retouched micropoints with
thinned base, the Gravettian points with rounded
retouched base (points of Kozarnika type) and backed
truncations.
More recent investigations definitely confirmed that
middle European elements occur in the Gravettian of the
central and eastern Balkans (Kozłowski 1999; 2005).
However, there still remains an open question whether the
Gravettian communities really shifted from the middle
towards southeast Europe in the beginning of the Last
Glacial as it was once assumed. It should be bore in mind
that middle European elements (and Gravettian in
general) appear in the eastern Balkans very early
(Tsanova 2003) while numerous parallels between the
Gravettian industries from Šalitrena, Kozanika and
Temnata confirm the assumption about the Typical
Balkan Gravettian.
When the Epigravettian is concerned it is obvious that
common elements could be observed in the early phase
within very large area from the south Pannonia to the east
Adriatic coast. In the early phase Epigravettian is
characterized by undifferentiated industry where except
98
backed points and bladelets occur also the endscrapers on
blades and flakes and truncated blades but there are no
geometric artifacts, endscrapers generally prevail over the
burins and shouldered were registered sporadically
(Mihailović 1998b). The elements of continuity in relation
to the preceding period could be best observed at the site
Kadar in the Sava basin (Montet White and Johnson
1976; Montet White et al. 1986; Montet White 2000) and
they also appear in the Epigravettian layers of Temnata
(Sirakov et al. 1994). For the time being there are no
many elements, which could indicate the expansion of the
Mediterranean influences before the Bölling-Alleröd
oscillation.
In the final Epigravettian the situation is essentially
different although it should be mentioned that sites from
this period are almost unknown outside the coastal region
and its immediate hinterland. In the Balkan interior the
final Epigravettian was only confirmed in the northern
Montenegro – at Medena Stijena (Mihailović 1996) and
Trebački Krš (Đuričić 1996) but also much more to the
north – in the cave Climente II and lower horizons of the
rock shelter Cuina Turcului in the Iron Gates (Paunescu
1978; Boroneant 1999). There could be many reasons for
sparse presence of the Mediterranean elements in the
Early Epigravettian. First, the Mediterranean elements in
this industries (if there were any at all) are difficult to
recognize due to the absence of the characteristic artifacts.
Second, contacts between the coast and Balkan interior
could have been impeded during cold oscillations because
of the inaccessibility of the Dinaric Alps. Third, each of
these regions had its own cultural tradition. For instance,
not at the single site in Montenegro in contrast to the sites
in the eastern Balkans have been encountered bilaterally
retouched backed bladelets.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
As it could be seen from this short and very general
review it is clear that the Balkans was a barrier between
the Mediterranean and the middle Europe only in some
periods (Mousterian, Epigravettian). The greatest
differences between the Mediterranean and the central
European region could be noticed in the Middle
Palaeolithic and Epigravettian. It is also conspicuous that
central European influences reached in the Middle
Palaeolithic and Aurignacian as far as the south Pannonia
and in the Gravettian even to the north Balkans. However,
certain phenomena in technology could not be related to
the cultural factors. It concerns, first of all, the quartz
technology, which obviously mostly depended on the
settlement pattern and availability of resources. On the
other hand, the Charentian industries could have
represented either specific regional facies or they could
have originated from the earlier phase of the Middle
Palaeolithic in this area.
The cultural regionalization in the Balkan Palaeolithic is
understandable as it is well known that Balkans was
D. MIHAILOVIĆ & B. MIHAILOVIĆ: CULTURAL REGIONALIZATION IN THE PALAEOLITHIC OF THE MIDDLE DANUBE BASIN…

Fig. 7.4. Stone artefacts from Šalitrena Pećina (layer 4)

99
LE CONCEPT DE TERRITOIRES DANS LE PALEOLITHIQUE SUPERIEUR EUROPEEN
always the zone of transition and merging of different
cultures. It is evident in the Middle Palaeolithic
(Petrovaradin fortress) bur also in the later periods. The
communication with neighboring regions could have
depended on the level of mobility of human groups in the
different periods of the Palaeolithic. And as has been
argued by many authors it was the most intensive in the
Aurignacian and Gravettian.
It also turned out that entirely distinctive cultural
manifestations appeared in the Balkans. It was not the
case in the Early Upper Palaeolithic but obviously in the
later periods as well, particularly in the early Holocene.
On the basis of the results of investigations of the Middle
and Early Upper Palaeolithic in the central and eastern
Balkans achieved so far it could be assumed that more
and more evidence of that character could be expected. It
reveals that in explaining the cultural phenomena within
larger geographic area the Balkan peninsula should not be
observed as an area where spreading of certain cultures is
imminent only because their existence has been registered
in the neighboring areas. The distinct cultural
development in the Balkans was certainly influenced by
paleogeographic and paleoecological conditions but
cultural isolation of the peninsula never happened, first of
all because of its geographic position. It means that main
natural communications leading towards central Europe
and southwestern Asia were passable in all periods.
Against that background we think that key for
comprehension of the cultural processes within larger
regional level, especially when the transitional periods are
concerned lies in the investigations along the routes of
main natural communications (Danube basin, Nišava
valley, Morava-Vardar route) and in the area of the
Dinaric Alps.
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