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Descriptive Geometry:
The technique of representing three dimensional forms in two-dimensional space by means of
engineering drawing is formally known as descriptive geometry.
History:
Formalized the method of representing shape by projecting views of an object into two
mutual perpendicular planes
o Elevations were drawn on vertical plane
o Plans were drawn on horizontal plane
Essence of this projection is still applied
o Three-dimensional forms are represented in two dimensions by mapping points
on the object into multiple mutually perpendicular planes of projection
o This is done by using parallel projectors that are normal to the planes of
projection
o Projection: Point—Edge—Surface
o Projection into two-dimensional space is obtained by unfolding multiple
perpendicular planes of projection into a single plane
Projection planes are related in a formal manner
Pictorial Projection:
Projection into a single plane that is not in general aligned with any of the main faces of an
object is known as pictorial projection.
Perspective Projection:
Main model representation of design is used to generate further models for assessment
and generation of manufacturing information
Generation of new models requires the engineer to identify visually the information
required from a drawing or diagram
Drawings are easily misread
Whenever there is a transcription from a drawing to extract information, there is a risk
of error or misinterpretation
Computer-aided Draughting:
Advantage:
Entity:
Normally defined by the system in terms of numeric values for their point coordinate or
other data
Terminologies:
Fixed co-ordinate system which is used for overall definition of the model, is known as global
co-ordinate system.
Movable coordinate system that might be used to assist in model construction is known as
work coordinate system.
Primitive:
Geometric entities which are normally instances of geometric forms are known as primitives.
Their dimensions and orientations are instantiated for each entry in the representation
Example:
A circle whose dimensions would be instantiated to particular value of radius and coordinates
Wire-frame Geometry:
The scheme in which the geometry is defined as a series of lines and curves representing the
edges and sections of the object is known as wire-frame geometry
Construction Techniques:
Similar to draughting
Movable WCS is used
1. Three Points
Origin & X direction shown through 2 points
Y-direction defined by the third point
2. Line & Point
End points of the line define the origin and the x direction
Y-direction defined by another point
3. Planar Entry
Centre and 0 degree position on the entity defines the origin and x-direction
Y-direction is identified by the 90 degree position
4. Planar Entry & Point
Almost identical to planar entry
Origin is denoted by an offset point
Working Depth:
Sometimes planar entities are constructed at a z-axis value equal to working depth
Work Plane:
Used for projected intersection and points
Application:
Ambiguity in representation
Possibility of nonsense objects
Deficiency in pictorial representation
o Parallel projection make orientation of models difficult to interpret
o Complex models are difficult to interpret
o Complex models do not allow automatic viewing with hidden lines removed
o Silhouette edges may not normally be generated
o Depth cueing may help
Limited ability in calculating mechanical properties or geometric intersections
Limited value as a basis for manufacture or analysis
Depth Cueing:
Here lines further away from the viewer are displayed less intensely to give an impression of
the viewer
2.5D:
For shapes that are not two-dimensional but neither require 3D representation
Intermediate representation
Subset of wire-frame scheme
The scheme that involves representing the model by specifying some or all of the surfaces on
the component is known as surface modeling/Surface representation scheme.
Types of Surfaces:
Flat Plane
o Simplest
o Can be defined through-
Two parallel lines
Three points
A line and a point
st
1 Category
o Surfaces are fitted to control points
o Surface is generated to pass through or interpolate the points
2nd Category
o Surfaces are based on curves
o Surfaces may be imagined as forming skin on top of a wire-frame skeleton
Example:
o Tabulated Cylinder
Defined by projecting a generating curve along a vector
o Ruled Surface
Produced by linear interpolation between two different generating or
edge curves
o Surface of Revolution
Produced by revolving a generating curve about a centre line or vector
o Swept Surface
Extension of surface of revolution
Curve is swept along an arbitrary spline curve
o Sculptured or Curve-Mesh Surface
Most common
Defined by grid of intersecting generating curves
These curves form a patchwork of surface patches
Example: Coons patch, Gordon Surface
rd
3 Category
o Surfaces are defined to interpolate between other surfaces
o Example: Chamfer Surfaces, Fillet Surfaces
Control Points:
Arrays of data points to which surfaces are fitted in are called control points
To work initially in terms of a set of plane cross-sectional curves instead of all parallel
planes
o System skins or blends the cross-sections to give a smooth surface
o Done through-
Guiding spline to define swept surfaces
Lofting over a set of curves
o Surface often comprises of multiple connected surface patches
o Approach most appropriate for-
Automotive engine parts
Pump volutes
Lofting:
The process in which a series of cross-sections are blended by smooth curves, often with the
help of a spline is known as lofting.
Application:
o Less ambiguity
o Excellent basis for generating manufacturing instructions
o Good for analysis
o Arbitrary complex forms may be precisely modeled
o Models may be distributed to all those in the product development process
Solid Modelling:
“An informationally complete representation would permit any well defined geometric
property of any represented solid to be calculated automatically”
The method in which models are constructed using combination of simple solid primitives is
known as constructive solid geometry method.
o Very Compact
o Guarantee of modeling valid solids unambiguously
o Complex shapes may be developed relatively quickly with this method
Problems:
Boundary Representation:
The scheme in which additional informations about-
Faces of model do not intersect each other except at common vertices or edges
Boundaries of the faces are simple loops of edges that donot intersect
themselves
Set of faces of the model close to form the complete skin of the model with no
missing parts
o The first two disallow self-intersecting objects and ensure 2-mainfold surfaces
o The third one intersects open objects
2-manifold Surface:
Surface in which every point on the surface has a full two-dimensional neighborhood of other
points on the surface is known to be 2-mainfold
Every point is imagined to be surrounded by a disk of surfaces that can be unfolded flat
Polyhedral Model:
Advantage:
Disadvantage: