Hello!

You are consulting an examination paper from the archives

at https://fluidmech.ninja/.
In the summer semester 2020, the general structure of the exami-
nation will be largely the same as in this archive. Nevertheless,
because the course content progressively changes from year to
year, there are a few differences. In former years,

• The course contained a chapter about compressible air flow

(involving tables for air properties) that is no longer part of
the course now;

• Conversely, several chapters have been added to the exam-

inable content over the years;

• The course contained a duct flow problem involving a ball

fountain (“Kugel fountain”) that is no longer part of the
course now;

• Viscosity values were read in a different diagram, and may

not match values read in the 2020 viscosity diagram;

• Many small updates in the notation had not yet been carried
out.

To obtain precise information about the summer semester 2020

examination, consult the dedicated appendix in the lecture notes.
If you have questions, contact me as detailed in the course syllabus.
Thanks, and good luck in your revisions!
Olivier Cleynen
September 2020
 Solution: Fluid Mechanics examination — July 11, 2019
Fluid Mechanics for Master Students
fluidmech.ninja

1 Governing equation

1.1 N-S equation question

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢 𝜕 2𝑢
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝜌𝑔𝑥 − +𝜇 + +
[ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 ] 𝜕𝑥 [ (𝜕𝑥)2 (𝜕𝑦)2 (𝜕𝑧)2 ]
(1)
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 2𝑣 𝜕 2𝑣 𝜕 2𝑣
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝜌𝑔𝑦 − +𝜇 + +
[ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 ] 𝜕𝑦 [ (𝜕𝑥)2 (𝜕𝑦)2 (𝜕𝑧)2 ]
(2)
2 2 2
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 𝑤 𝜕 𝑤 𝜕 𝑤
𝜌 +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = 𝜌𝑔𝑧 − +𝜇 + +
[ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 ] 𝜕𝑧 [ (𝜕𝑥)2 (𝜕𝑦)2 (𝜕𝑧)2 ]
(3)

1.2 Continuity question

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + = 0 (4)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

1
2 Observation window in a water tank

2.1 Net force

We define coordinates 𝑟 and 𝑧, and the length 𝐿1 , as shown in the figure below.

The force on a small section of door with length d𝑟 and width 𝑊 is d𝐹 . On the complete
door, the force applying due to the net pressure 𝑝net of water and air is:

𝑟=𝑅max
𝐹net = ∫ d𝐹 (5)
𝑟=0
𝑟=𝑅max
= ∫ 𝑝net d𝑆 (6)
𝑟=0
𝑟=𝑅max
= ∫ 𝑝net 𝑊 d𝑟 (7)
𝑟=0
𝑟=𝑅max
= ∫ 𝜌 𝑔 𝑧 𝑊 d𝑟 (8)
𝑟=0

A coordinate transform is needed to solve the integral, expressing 𝑧 as a function of 𝑅.

This is obtained by geometry:

𝑧 = 𝑍min + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 (9)

2
Inserting eq. 9 into eq. 8, we continue with:
𝑟=𝑅max
𝐹net = ∫ 𝜌 𝑔 (𝑍min + 𝑟 sin 𝜃) 𝑊 d𝑟 (10)
𝑟=0
𝑟=𝑅max
= 𝜌𝑔𝑊∫ (𝑍min + 𝑟 sin 𝜃) d𝑟 (11)
𝑟=0
𝑟=𝑅max
= 𝜌𝑔𝑊∫ (𝐿1 sin 𝜃 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃) d𝑟 (12)
𝑟=0
1 𝑟=𝑅max
= 𝜌 𝑔 𝑊 sin 𝜃 [𝐿1 𝑟 + 𝑟 2 ] (13)
2 𝑟=0
= 𝜌 𝑔 𝑊 sin 𝜃 (𝐿1 𝑅max + 0,5𝑅max 2 ) (14)
= 103 × 9,81 × 3,5 × sin(70°) (0,8 × 1,5 + 0,5 × 1,52 ) (15)
= 75 014 N (16)
𝐹net = 75,01 kN (17)

2.2 Distance from hinge

We first calculate the moment exerting about the hinge due to the net pressure of air and
water, using the same notation as above:
𝑟=𝑅max
𝑀net = ∫ 𝑟 d𝐹 (18)
𝑟=0
𝑟=𝑅max
= ∫ 𝑟𝜌 𝑔 𝑧 𝑊 d𝑟 (19)
𝑟=0
𝑟=𝑅max
= ∫ 𝑟𝜌 𝑔 (𝑍min + 𝑟 sin 𝜃) 𝑊 d𝑟 (20)
𝑟=0
𝑟=𝑅max
= 𝜌𝑔𝑊∫ 𝑟 (𝐿1 sin 𝜃 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃) d𝑟 (21)
𝑟=0
1 1 𝑟=𝑅max
= 𝜌 𝑔 𝑊 sin 𝜃 [ 𝐿1 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 3 ] (22)
2 3 𝑟=0
1
= 103 × 9,81 × 3,5 × sin(70°) (0,5 × 0,8 × 1,52 + × 1,53 ) (23)
3
= 65 335 N m (24)
𝑀net = 65,34 kN m (25)

The distance away from the hinge 𝑅𝐹 is obtained by dividing the moment by the force:

𝑀net
𝑅𝐹 = (26)
𝐹net
75 014
= (27)
65 335
𝑅𝐹 = 0,87 m (28)

3
2.3 Change in distance

Increasing water height translates (only) in an increase of the value of 𝐿1 in the equations
above. Both 𝑀net and 𝐹net increase together with 𝐿1 (eqs. 14 & 22), so it is not immediately
apparent how 𝑅𝐹 changes in eq. 26.

Several possibilities can be used to find the answer:

• Substituting 𝑥𝐿1 instead of 𝐿1 and comparing the two radiuses, one can write:

𝑅𝐹 2 < 𝑅𝐹 1 (29)

1
2
2
+ 31 𝑅max
𝑥𝐿1 𝑅max 3 1
𝐿 𝑅 2 + 31 𝑅max
2 1 max
3
< (30)
𝑥𝐿1 𝑅max + 21 𝑅max
2 𝐿1 𝑅max + 21 𝑅max
2

1 < 𝑥 (31)

(it is even possible to show, using this equation 30, that 𝑅𝐹 tends towards 𝑅max /2 as
𝐿1 increases);

• It is possible to observe graphically that the center of application of the force

moves closer to the hinge when the net pressure distribution is changed due to the
increase in 𝐿1 ;

• It is also possible to calculate manually one or several new values for 𝑅𝐹 ;

All those methods will provide some evidence that the distance 𝑅𝐹 will in fact decrease
when 𝐿1 is increased.

4
3 Piping leading to a turbine

3.1 Pressure distribution

3.2 Turbine power

We want to calculate three pressure drops:

• Pressure drop due to wall friction losses along the pipe, Δ𝑝𝑓 : The average velocity
in the pipe is

̇
𝑉av. = (32)
𝑆
̇
= 2 (33)
𝜋 𝐷4
0,8
= 2 (34)
𝜋 × 1,14
𝑉av. = 0,842 m s−1 (35)

5
 The Reynolds number is

𝜌𝑉av. 𝐷
[Re]𝐷 = (36)
𝜇
3
10 × 0,842 × 1,1
= (37)
10−5
[Re]𝐷 = 9,251 ⋅ 105 (38)

The relative roughness is

𝜖 0,25 ⋅ 10−3
= (39)
𝐷 1,1
𝜖
= 2,27 ⋅ 10−4 (40)
𝐷

With those values, the Moody diagram reads:

𝑓 = 0,0158 (41)

Finally, the wall friction losses along the pipe are calculated as:

1 2 𝐿
Δ𝑝𝑓 = −𝑓 𝜌𝑉av. (42)
2 𝐷
1 3 4 ⋅ 103
= −0,0158 10 0,8422 (43)
2 1,1
Δ𝑝𝑓 = −2,03 ⋅ 104 Pa (44)

• Pressure drop due to losses in the four bends, Δ𝑝bends :

1 2
Δ𝑝bends = −4 × 𝐾𝐿 𝜌𝑉av. (45)
2
1
= −4 × 0,75 × × 103 × 0,8422 (46)
2
3
Δ𝑝bends = −1,06 ⋅ 10 Pa (47)

• Pressure drop due to hydrostatic pressure change across the turbine, Δ𝑝ℎ :

Δ𝑝ℎ = 𝜌𝑔(Δ𝑧) (48)

= 103 × 9,81 [4 − (25 + 51)] (49)
Δ𝑝ℎ = −7,06 ⋅ 105 Pa (50)

6
Finally, the turbine hydraulic power is obtained as:

̇
𝑊̇ turbine = (Δ𝑝turbine ) (51)
= ̇ (Δ𝑝ℎ − Δ𝑝𝑓 − Δ𝑝bends ) (52)
= 0,8 × [−7,06 ⋅ 105 − (−2,03 ⋅ 104 ) − (−1,06 ⋅ 10−3 )] (53)
= −5,479 ⋅ 105 W (54)
𝑊̇ turbine = −547,9 kW (55)

3.3 Residual water height

The water will flow until air is entrained (“sucked”) into the pipe inlet. At this point, the
residual water height in the left tank will be 8 m.

7
4 Boundary layer on a flat plate

4.1 Transition point

The transition point occurs at [Re]𝑥 ≈ 5 ⋅ 105 . Solving for 𝑥tr. , we have:

𝜌𝑈 𝑥tr.
[Re]𝑥tr. = (56)
𝜇
[Re]𝑥tr. 𝜇
𝑥tr. = (57)
𝜌𝑈
5 ⋅ 105 × 1,5 ⋅ 10−5
= (58)
1,225 × 21
𝑥tr. = 0,29 m (59)

4.2 Shear in laminar section

We start with the given equation and implement the definition (15) of the formula sheet,
as well as the definition of the distance-based Reynolds number [Re]𝑥 :

0,664
𝑐𝑓(𝑥) = √ (60)
[Re]𝑥
𝜏wall, laminar 0,664
1 2
= √ (61)
2
𝜌𝑈 𝜌𝑈 𝑥
𝜇
−1
𝜌𝑈 𝑥 2 1 2
𝜏wall, laminar = 0,664 𝜌𝑈 (62)
( 𝜇 ) 2
√ 1
𝜏wall, laminar = 0,332 𝜌𝜇 𝑈 1,5 𝑥 − 2 (63)

The shear force is the integral of the shear with respect to area:

𝐹shear, laminar = ∫ 𝜏wall, laminar d𝑆 (64)

We split the total area covered by the laminar boundary layer in strips of width 𝑊 and
length d𝑥, with 𝑥 ranging from 0 (leading edge) to 𝑥tr. (where the laminar part of the

8
boundary ends), obtaining:
𝑥=𝑥tr.
𝐹shear, laminar = ∫ 𝜏wall 𝑊 d𝑥 (65)
𝑥=0
𝑥=𝑥tr.
√ 1
= ∫ 0,332 𝜌𝜇 𝑈 1,5 𝑥 − 2 𝑊 d𝑥 (66)
𝑥=0
𝑥tr.
√
= 0,332 𝜌𝜇 𝑈 1,5 𝑊 ∫ 𝑥 −0,5 d𝑥 (67)
0
tr. 𝑥
√ 1
= 0,332 𝜌𝜇 𝑈 1,5 𝑊 𝑥 −0,5+1 (68)
[ −0,5 + 1 ]0
√ 1,5 0,5
= 0,332 𝜌𝜇 𝑈 𝑊 2 𝑥tr. (69)
√ 3 1
𝐹𝜏 laminar = 0,664 𝜌𝜇 𝑈 2 𝑊 𝑥tr.2 (70)

4.3 Value of shear in the laminar section

We simply insert values into eq. 70:

√ 3 1
𝐹𝜏 laminar = 0,664 1,225 × 1,5 ⋅ 10−5 21 2 × 0,6 × 0,292 2 (71)
𝐹𝜏 laminar = 0,0887 N (72)

4.4 Shear in turbulent section

The process is the same in the turbulent part of the layer, with 𝜏wall, turbulent derived from
equation (19) in the formula sheet:

− 17
1 𝜌𝑈 1
𝜏wall, turbulent = 0,027 𝜌𝑈 2 𝑥−7 (73)
2 ( 𝜇 )

This is integrated with respect to area, with 𝑥 ranging from 𝑥tr. (where the turbulent
section begins) to 𝑥max (the trailing edge of the plate):
𝑥=𝑥max
𝐹shear, turbulent = ∫ 𝜏wall 𝑊 d𝑥 (74)
𝑥=𝑥tr.
𝑥max
6 13 1 1
= 0,0135 𝜌 7 𝑈 7 𝜇 7 𝑊 ∫ 𝑥 − 7 d𝑥 (75)
𝑥tr.
6 13 1 6 𝑥max
= 0,01575 𝜌 7 𝑈 7 𝜇 7 𝑊 [𝑥 7 ] (76)
𝑥tr.
6 13 1 6 6
= 0,01575 × 1,225 7 × 21 7 × (1,5 ⋅ 10−5 ) 7 × 0,6 × (2 7 − 0,292 7 ) (77)
𝐹shear, turbulent = 0,961 N (78)

9
4.5 Thickness

Models for the boundary layer thickness are given in the formula sheet as equations 16
and 18 for 𝛿 (one for the laminar section, the other for the turbulent section). In both, the
Reynolds number [Re]𝑥 appears in the denominator (the lower part of the fraction). As
𝑈 is increased, [Re]𝑥 will increase too, and consequently, the thickness of the boundary
layer will decrease.

10
5 Velocity measurements in a tunnel

5.1 Drag force

We build a control volume around the object:

We use a mass balance equation to quantify the height ℎ1 of the inlet:

d
0 = 𝜌 d + ∬ 𝜌 (𝑉⃗rel ⋅ 𝑛)
⃗ d𝐴 (79)
d𝑡 ∭CV CS

= − ∬ 𝜌|𝑉in | d𝐴 + ∬ 𝜌|𝑉out | d𝐴 (80)

ℎ1 ℎ2
= −𝜌𝐿 ∫ 𝑈 d𝑦 + 𝜌𝐿 ∫ 𝑢2(𝑦) d𝑦 (81)
0 0
ℎ2
= −𝜌𝐿𝑈 ℎ1 + 𝜌𝐿 ∫ 𝑢2(𝑦) d𝑦 (82)
0
ℎ2
1
ℎ1 = 𝑢2(𝑦) d𝑦 (83)
𝑈 ∫0

The drag force is quantified using a momentum balance equation, which reduces to a
scalar equation in the 𝑥-direction:

d
𝐹⃗net = 𝜌 𝑉⃗ d + ∬ 𝜌 𝑉⃗ (𝑉⃗rel ⋅ 𝑛)
⃗ d𝐴 (84)
d𝑡 ∭CV CS

−𝐹net = − ∬ 𝜌|𝑉in |2 d𝐴 + ∬ 𝜌|𝑉out |2 d𝐴 (85)

ℎ2
= −𝜌𝐿ℎ1 𝑈12 + 𝜌𝐿 ∫ 2
𝑢2(𝑦) d𝑦 (86)
0

11
We insert the expression for ℎ1 obtained above in this last expression, continuing as:
ℎ2 ℎ2
1 2
−𝐹net = −𝜌𝐿 𝑢 d𝑦 + 𝜌𝐿 ∫ 𝑢2(𝑦) d𝑦 (87)
𝑈 ∫0
2(𝑦)
0
ℎ2
2
= 𝜌𝐿 ∫ (𝑢2(𝑦) − 𝑈1 𝑢2(𝑦) ) d𝑦 (88)
0

Instead of a function 𝑢2 = 𝑓 (𝑦), we have discrete values. The integral is therefore

approximated as:

−𝐹net = 𝜌𝐿 ∑ (𝑢22 − 𝑈1 𝑢2 ) δ𝑦 (89)

𝑦
= 𝜌𝐿 ∑ [𝑢2 (𝑢2 − 𝑈1 )] δ𝑦 (90)
𝑦

−𝐹net = 𝜌𝐿 ∑ [3,2 (3,2 − 3,2)

𝑦
+3,2 (3,2 − 3,2)
+3,15 (3,15 − 3,2)
+3,14 (3,14 − 3,2)
+3,03 (3,03 − 3,2)
+2,92 (2,92 − 3,2)
+2,81 (2,81 − 3,2)
+2,87 (2,87 − 3,2)
+2,89 (2,89 − 3,2)
+2,97 (2,97 − 3,2)
+3,19 (3,19 − 3,2)
+3,2 (3,2 − 3,2)
+3,2 (3,2 − 3,2) ] δ𝑦 (91)

= 999 × 0,7 × (−5,3325) × 0,05 (92)

= −186,45 N (93)
𝐹net = 186,45 N (94)

𝐹net is the net force exerted on the fluid by the object. It is positive in the 𝑥-direction.
The drag force is the force exerted on the object on the fluid, and so is pointing in the
opposite direction (flow-wise direction): 𝐹drag = −186,45 N.

12
5.2 Dependence on viscosity

Viscosity does not appear in equation (90) above. Nevertheless, an increase in viscosity
will translate into higher shear, and so it is likely that the object will affect a larger
amount of fluid around itself. This will result in a larger velocity deficit (reduced values
of 𝑢2 in the tabled measurement values). The expression for 𝐹drag will not change, but its
value will increase.

13
6 Lift and drag on a rotating football

6.1 Required wind tunnel speed

The two flows will have identical behavior if the Reynolds numbers are equal. With 1
denoting the real football, and 2 denoting the wind tunnel sphere, we have:

[Re]1 = [Re]2 (95)

𝜌𝑉1 𝐷1 𝜌𝑉2 𝐷2
= (96)
𝜇 𝜇
𝐷1
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 (97)
𝐷2
70 0,22
= (98)
3,6 1,1
= 3,89 m s−1 (99)
𝑉2 = 14 km h−1 (100)

6.2 Ratio of forces

Since the two flows are dynamically similar, the force coefficients are the same. Consid-
ering the lift coefficients,

𝐶𝐿1 = 𝐶𝐿2 (101)

𝐿1 𝐿2
1 2
= 1 (102)
2
𝜌𝑆1 𝑉1 2
𝜌𝑆2 𝑉12
𝐿1 𝐿2
2 2
= 2 2 (103)
𝐷1 𝑉1 𝐷2 𝑉1
𝐿1 𝐷2 𝑉 2
= 12 12 (104)
𝐿2 𝐷2 𝑉2
𝑉2 𝑉2
= 22 12 (105)
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝐿1
= 1 (106)
𝐿2

So, the forces will be identical on both the wind tunnel model and the real football.

14
6.3 Rotation speed

The desired lift force is 𝐿1 = 3,1 N. This corresponds to a lift coefficient of:

𝐿1
𝐶𝐿1 = 1 (107)
2
𝜌𝑆1 𝑉12
𝐿1
= 2 (108)
1
2
𝜌𝜋 𝐷41 𝑉12
3,1
= 0,222
(109)
0,5 × 1,225 × 𝜋 × 4
× 19,442
𝐶𝐿1 = 0,352 (110)

Inputting this value in figure 9, one corresponding value of 𝜔𝐷/2𝑈 is 1,51. This allows
us to obtain a value for 𝜔 (other higher values also work):

𝜔1 𝐷1
= 1,51 (111)
2𝑈1
1,51 × 2𝑈1
𝜔1 = (112)
𝐷1
1,51 × 2 × 19,44
= (113)
0,22
= 266 rad s−1 (114)
𝜔1 = 42,5 rotations/s (115)

6.4 Drag force

The chosen value of 𝜔𝐷/2𝑈 corresponds to a drag coefficient reading of 0,56 in figure 9.
Inputting this in the definition for the drag coefficient, we can solve for the drag 𝐹𝐷 :

𝐹𝐷1
0,56 = 𝐶𝐷1 = 1 (116)
2
𝜌𝑆1 𝑉12
1 𝐷2
𝐹𝐷1 = 0,56 × 𝜌𝜋 1 𝑉12 (117)
2 4
0,222
= 0,56 × 0,5 × 1,225 × 𝜋 × 19,442 (118)
4
𝐹𝐷1 = 4,93 N (119)

6.5 Doubling of lift force

√ √
The force is “easily” doubled by multiplying the speed 𝑉1 by a factor 2: 𝑉3 = 2𝑉1 .
We obtain the same lift coefficient (𝐶𝐿3 = 𝐶𝐿1 = 0,352). The rotation speed has to be
adapted according to the expression 112: we obtain 𝜔3 = 60,1 rotations/s.

15