ALTERNATIVE FUEL OPERATED

VEHICLES
Adit Gaur*, V.K.Nema**

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad

Abstract
Limited availability of traditional fuels, harmful emissions created by them and conflicting fact
i.e need of vehicles as human luxury have led the government and entrepreneurs to think of
alternative fuel operated vehicles. New emerging fuel cells and hydrogen operated vehicles are
proving more efficient and eco-friendly. From abundant water available on the earth, hydrogen
can be obtained by using variety of energy resources including solar, wind, biomass, natural gas
and coal. People can have easy access to them due to their wide availability. This reduces
dependence on foreign fuel. Hybrid electric vehicles combining characteristics of both gasoline
and any alternative fuel, LPG vehicles, vehicles with fuel E-85 which has resistance to knock, air
engine car which is emission free and has piston engine that uses compressed air as source of
energy, solar vehicles, ammonia fueled vehicles, biogas operated car, liquid nitrogen car, steam
car, wood gas vehicles and gasoline vapor vehicles, all are in race to settle at peak in market.
Mixture of heavy oil and synthetic oil (derived from waste bilge oil) has viscosity same as that of
diesel oil, and guarantees the smooth operation of engine. P-Series, which is a blend of ethanol,
methylete-tetrahydrofuran, pentanes and butanes is also an efficient fuel. IC Engines can also be
powered by renewable NaK alloy that reacts with water to form hydroxides and releases energy.
Combustible ice discovered by china recently can also serve as alternative fuel with some
limitations.Though relatively inexpensive gasoline and diesel vehicles are still challenging all
these alternatives in efficiency and simplicity, there is possibility of using thermal energy stored
in objects and materials besides the alternative fuels described above to power the vehicles.

*B.Tech-(Second year) Student (email: ableadit@gmail.com)

** Professor (email: vknema@mnnit.ac.in, phone:(0532)2271516(O))

Introduction:
Today limited gasoline and diesel are moving on the track to meet their exhaust, so
implementation of new alternatives must be taken in account so that they can take their effective
form when they are most needed. Many vehicles are emerging along with their potentials and
weaknesses which are described in the following text.

Alternative fuel vehicles:

Vehicles powered by alternative fuels other than conventional gasoline or diesel engines may be
classified as given below:

Hydrogen IC engines:
From past many years usage of fuel is moving in direction of cleaner fuel in following sequence
(from left to right):

Wood>coal>petroleum>propane>methane

Methane is our major move towards fuel. But in future certainly our move would to hydrogen. It
is directed by our continuous move towards fuel having richer hydrogen. At present two basic
technologies used to produce hydrogen are: 1) reformation of natural gas, and 2) electrolysis of
water. But it can be obtained from water by use of variety of resources namely solar, wind,
nuclear, biomass, petroleum, coal etc [1]. Factors in favour of hydrogen as fuel are highest
energy content per unit mass, wide range of flammability, low ignition energy of about 10-fold
less than that required for gasoline, high flame speed, less or no toxic emission and high
diffusivity. The most common and cost effective way to produce hydrogen is reformation of
natural gas. It can be argued that if hydrogen economy was in place then additional cost of
natural gas formation and subsequent carbon dioxide sequestration is minimal [2]. For fuel usage
in vehicles , storage has been the main technical challenge. Present storage techniques for
hydrogen include compressed gas, cryogenic liquid, and adsorption on solid.

Challenges:
The factors which favor hydrogen as a fuel in one respect also become its weakness in other
respect. Like owing to hydrogen’s lower ignition energy, wider flammability range and shorter
quenching distance, premature ignition is major problem in HICEs. Low volumetric density of
hydrogen results in storage problems. Also to match the efficiency of gasoline engines, large
tanks are needed as 2.35 pounds of ammonia is equivalent to one pound of gasoline in energy
content [2]. High cost of hydrogen production and evolution of Green house gases as by- product
in production become major hindrances in its mass usage. The most stringent requirements with
respect to gravimetric and volumetric storage capacities are posed by automobiles, where the
acceptable weight and volume of a storage tank has to be about 100kg and 100L respectively [1].
Conclusion:
Problem due to premature ignition in intake manifold can be resolved by using direct injection of
fuel into the combustion cylinder during compression stroke. In this method intake valve is
closed when fuel is injected and gives more power output. Above problem can also be dealt with
techniques such as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) or water circulation. EGR system
recirculates a portion of the exhaust gases back into the intake manifold. The introduction of
exhaust gases helps to reduce the temperature of hot spots, reducing the possibility of pre-
ignition. Also this process reduces the peak combustion temperature, which reduces NO X
emissions. But power output is reduced by this method. Additional measures to decrease the
probability of pre-ignition are the use of two small exhaust valves as opposed to a single large
one, and the development of an effective scavenging system, that is, a means of displacing
exhaust gas from the combustion chamber with fresh air. Platinum-tip spark plugs should also be
avoided since platinum is a catalyst, causing hydrogen to oxidize with air. Also cold rated spark
plugs are used in order to reduce chances of pre-ignition [3]. Current metal hydrides, suitable for
automotive applications, typically store 0.5-2 wt% hydrogen. Hydrides release heat when
charged with pressurized hydrogen, and absorb heat to release hydrogen. Other metal hydrides
such as magnesium hydride with 7.6wt% hydrogen storage capacity and sodium alanate with
5.5wt% hydrogen storage capacity etc. can be used to make storage tanks. Also low cost material
such as activated carbon, graphite, graphene, fullerene etc can also be used for the above purpose
by the phenomenon of adsorption [1].

Fuel cell vehicles:

Fuel cell with proton exchange membrane is most suited for powering automobiles due to its
relatively low temperature operation, high power density, rapid change in power on demand, and
quick start up. Also these cells do not emit harmful green house gases. Another fuel cell
technology is on horizon: the direct methanol fuel cell. Methanol fuel cell vehicles use a steam
reformer operating at relatively low temperatures to split the methanol molecule and produce the
hydrogen needed by the fuel cell stack. Today's internal combustion engine converts only 19% of
the useful energy in gasoline to turn a car's wheels. Methanol fuel cell vehicles are projected to
achieve efficiencies of at least 38%, while bringing smog-precursor emissions close to zero and
cutting greenhouse gas emissions in half [4]. Methanol is injected directly into the cell in a direct
methanol fuel cell removing the need for a reformer and its associated controls, thereby reducing
weight and cost, and eliminating the small amount of nitrogen oxide emissions produced in
steam reforming [5].
Challenges:
Two major challenges for fuel cells are cost and durability. Major contributors to cost are
platinum electro catalyst, membrane, and bipolar plates. Research is going on to reduce platinum
content in catalyst.

Hybrid electric vehicles:

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the internal combustion engine of a conventional
vehicle with the battery and electric motor of an electric vehicle, resulting in increased fuel
economy. This combination offers the extended range and rapid refueling that consumers expect
from a conventional vehicle, with a significant portion of the energy and environmental benefits
of an electric vehicle. The two types of hybrid cars are: 1) A parallel hybrid car, which can use
either its electric motor or gasoline engine to turn the transmission, and 2) A series hybrid car,
which has only the electric motor directly connected to the transmission. The practical benefits
of HEVs include improved fuel economy and lower emissions compared to conventional
vehicles. Also they have a feature of regenerative braking that is instead of using only friction to
brake the car, they use excess kinetic energy to charge the batteries of the electric engine, and
thus saving energy .The inherent flexibility of HEVs will allow them to be used in a wide range
of applications from personal transportation to commercial hauling. Examples of hybrid vehicles
are Toyota prius and Honda civic [6].
Challenges:
High incremental cost and market penetration are the barriers in mass use of these types of
vehicles.

LPG/LNG/CNG based vehicles:

Converting a vehicle to use compressed natural gas (CNG) costs about $3,000 and proves to be
cost effective over the vehicle’s life based on fuel cost savings alone. Liquid natural gas (LNG)
which is cryogenic and stored as cold liquid needs insulated storage and distribution systems,
and propane (LPG) are used as alternative fuels [7].
Challenges:
Cost of vehicle conversion for these fuels is high and hence a significant (20-25 percent)
improvement in road mileage should be there so that vehicles using them may compete with
petroleum fuel prices.
Bio alcohol based vehicles:
Present design IC engines run on liquid fuels. Methanol requires few (if any) engine
modifications to extract maximum power from this fuel. As compared to gasoline, methanol
lowers some tailpipe emissions. Also methanol contains only half the energy per gallon but has a
very high octane rating. Increased compression ratios could yield 5 to 20 percent more power.
Production of methanol from coal and biomass has been economically demonstrated in mass
production processes. Methanol is usually mixed with gasoline and ethanol in percentages of five
to eighty- five percent. The fuel is named on the basis of its composition; for example, M85,
consists of 85% methanol. Methanol emerges as the ideal hydrogen carrier for vehicles because
it is liquid at room temperature and ambient pressure. Methanol is a simple molecule consisting
of single carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms and one oxygen-hydrogen group.
Releasing the hydrogen from its bonds in a methanol molecule is easier to accomplish than for
other available liquid fuels. Moreover, methanol fuel contains no sulfur, which is a fuel-cell
contaminant, has no carbon-to-carbon bonds, which are hard to break, and has a very high
hydrogen –to-carbon ratio [8].

Ethanol produced from corn is also an alternative fuel, which gives out less carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide emissions. Currently E10 (10% ethanol+90% petrol) is used in many vehicles.
Alcohols have high power density enabling cars to accelerate quicker.
Challenges:
These engines have low kilometerage, thus larger tanks are needed to meet the range of petrol
car. Poor cold starting characteristics and corrosive nature are also barriers in mass usage.

Bio diesel/Biogas/vegetable oil based vehicles:

Barley, soybeans and other crops, along with waste grease from the food service or processing
industries can be distilled into biodiesel suitable to fuel diesel engine vehicles. This fuel can be
used in vehicles with little or no modification. In addition, harmful green house gases emission is
minimized substantially. It is eco- friendly and enhances the function of a car’s mechanism due
to more oxygen content in it. Biodiesel comes in B-20 (20 percent biodiesel, 80 percent
petroleum diesel) or B-100 (100 percent biodiesel) forms. Either form of biodiesel meets or
exceeds lubricity (fuel based engine lubrication) needs of a diesel engine which can make it a
great additive for the new low or ultra-low sulfur petroleum diesel [8]. Also vegetable oils and
animal fats are renewable and potentially inexhaustible source of energy with energy content
close to diesel fuel. According to the GROFOR-norm the fats with FFA over 15% and total
contamination over 5000 mg/kg are not suitable for use as food for animals. So it can be used as
fuel for diesel production and I.C engine. Biogas can also be used to drive internal combustion
engines which have same quality as that of compressed natural gas and its use is interesting for
climates where waste heat of biogas powered plant cannot be used during the summer.
Challenges:
Biodiesel have low energy density as compared to fossil diesel fuel, therefore fuel economy up to
the mark cannot be obtained. Waste vegetable oil, especially if it has been used for a long time,
may become hydrogenated and have increased acidity. This can cause the thickening of fuel,
gumming in the engine and acid damage of the fuel system. Also vegetable oil tends to solidify
under cold weathers [7]. Further, in fact, there is no bio fuel policy by the government; hence
biodiesel producers across the country are in a fix. The petroleum ministry has requested the
state government through the circular to ensure that the unauthorized sale and possession of
biodiesel in the market is checked and eliminated. Circular has annoyed the biodiesel producers,
compelling some of them to contemplate downing shutters. This virtually bans the sale of
biodiesel. On the other hand the railways and the Brihan-Mumbai Electric Supply and Transport
Undertaking have floated tenders for purchase of biodiesel. Biodiesel producers are not sure
whether the government wants to promote use of biodiesel or dissuade them from producing it.
They want unhindered sale of the biofuel [8].
Conclusion:
Fuel economy problem can be dealt with by changing diesel injection system. If injection timing
is changed suitably to take advantage of the high cetane value of biodiesel, the difference in
economy is negligible.

Air engine car:

The air engine is an emission-free piston engine that uses compressed air as a source of energy.
The first compressed air car was invented by a French engineer named Guy Nègre. The
expansion of compressed air may be used to drive the pistons in a modified piston engine.
Efficiency of operation is gained through the use of environmental heat at normal temperature to
warm the otherwise cold expanded air from the storage tank. This non-adiabatic expansion has
the potential to greatly increase the efficiency of the machine. The only exhaust is cold air (15
°C), which could also be used to air condition the car. The source for air is a pressurized carbon-
fiber tank holding air at 3,000 lbf/in² (20 MPa). Air is delivered to the engine via a rather
conventional injection system. Unique crank design within the engine increases the time during
which the air charge is warmed from ambient sources and a two stage process allows improved
heat transfer rates [9].

Solar /ammonia fueled /liquid nitrogen vehicles:

Solar cars use solar panels on the car to power the vehicle. Also ammonia can be used as an
alternative fuel, due to its flexibility in using it in both spark ignited and diesel engines with
minor modifications. Also it has half the density of diesel or petrol so can be carried in sufficient
quantities in vehicles and emit emission containing nitrogen and water vapor. Energy is used to
liquefy air, and then LN2 is produced by evaporation, and distributed. LN2 is exposed to ambient
heat in the car and the resulting nitrogen gas can be used to power a piston or turbine engine. The
maximum amount of energy that can be extracted from 1 kg of LN2 is 213 W-hr or 173 W-hr per
liter, in which a maximum of 70 W-hr can be utilized with an isothermal expansion process.
Such a vehicle can achieve ranges similar to that of gasoline with a 350 litre (90 gallons) tank.
Theoretical future engines, using cascading topping cycles can improve this to around 110 W-
hr/kg with a quasi-isothermal expansion process. The advantages are zero harmful emissions and
superior energy densities than compressed air, and a car powered by LN2 can be refilled in a
matter of minutes. Mr. Boese developed a most unique engine based on liquid nitrogen which is
inert, non-flammable and comprises about 78% of our atmosphere. The engine uses a “turbo-
expander” which functions as a heat exchanger. It allows the liquid nitrogen to expand rapidly
due to heat interaction with ambient air at a temperature of >30 degrees F. The "turbo- expander"
is basically a long hollow copper pipe that is either spiraled or folded in such a way as to give the
greatest surface exposure. Ambient heat will cause the liquid nitrogen to convert into gas phase
in the tube. Liquid nitrogen expands by 980 times its volume when it changes its phase from a
liquid to a gas. This expansion results in increase in its pressure, which drives the air motor [10].

Steam car/wood gas and gasoline vapor operated vehicles:

Water is fed into boiler which produces steam to push the piston of engine back and forth by
creating pressure. The best known steam-powered car is Stanley steamer. It has used a compact
fire-tube boiler under the hood to power a simple two piston engine. Steam produced in
refrigeration also can be used by a turbine in other vehicle types to produce electricity that can be
employed in electric motors or stored in a battery. Steam power can be combined with a standard
oil-based engine to create a hybrid. Water is injected into the cylinder after the fuel is burned,
when the piston is still superheated, often at temperatures of 1500 degrees or more. The water
will instantly be vaporized into steam, taking advantage of the heat that would otherwise be
wasted. During World War II, wood gas was used to power vehicles with attached wood gasifier.
Similarly researches are going on to utilize gasoline vapors to power IC engines [9].
Challenges:
Steam power vehicles take long time to start, are expensive and have only 5-8% efficiency.

NaK powered vehicles:

The liquid metal sodium-potassium alloy called NaK reacts with water and air to release energy
and to form hydroxides of NaK. The hydroxides are transported in solution by pipeline to be
regenerated to NaK metal by electrolysis, the NaK metal being transported by a second pipeline
to be dispensed to automobiles. The present invention is an internal combustion engine based on
an explosive reaction of NaK and water sprays in the presence of air. A two cycle piston engine
with NaK and water injected near maximum compression is preferred[11].
Synthetic fuel based vehicles:
Synthetic fuels are mainly used in diesel engines because they are economical, reliable and cheap
to maintain, though diesel engine cannot avoid some of its disadvantages such as high level of
noise, necessary cooling water in large amount etc. Synthetic fuel is derived from waste bilge oil.
Its low viscosity and high volatility make it unsuitable for diesel engine. But mixture of a heavy
oil and synthetic fuel has same viscosity as that of diesel oil, which guarantees the smooth
operation of engine. Fuel consumption rate depends upon how engine is modified. For example:
fuel consumption rate for mixed fuel is 132.6% for R165(unloading conditions) and for CY-
160RE(6.7 Hp load) is 113% of that for diesel [12].
Challenges:
The generated power and output torque both are less, and fuel consumption rate is also high in
case of use of mixture of synthetic fuel and heavy oil as compared to diesel fuel. Also emissions
of COX, NOX, and SOX are more in case of use of this fuel.
Conclusion:
Output power and torque comparable to diesel engine can be maintained by allowing
combustible gas formed in cylinder by mechanism of strong inlet vortex with air. Under the
loading conditions, the atomization-evaporation mechanism can be enhanced by the increase of
temperature in the cylinder of the engine, and then the efficiency of the engine can be promoted
for the mixed fuels. With increased rotational speed the emission of nitrogen oxide can be
minimized. CO emissions can be minimized by burning fuel with more oxygen content.

Thermal energy powered vehicles:

Developing a future perspective one can hope that there will be vehicles which is powered by
thermal energy extracted from great forgotten energy source i.e. geothermal energy. Also getting
all the geothermal energy is not feasible but only few percent of it can meet huge demand. The
Department of Energy’s National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) asserts that reaching
that 5 percent level, which would produce 260,000 megawatts of power and reduce our
dependence on coal by one-third, is double by 2050. Experiments are carried out in various
countries to extract heat from hot rocks. As they are worldwide available, they are economic
source of energy and really prove themselves in global interest in near future [13].
Combustible ice powered vehicles:
China has discovered an alternative source of energy for powering automobile engines. In this
method a combustible ice, which is a type of natural gas hydrate, will provide energy. It will take
a long time for its eco friendly usage. This project is in progress since 2004. Combustible gas
would be obtained by making a hole in the ice clad tundra region of china. One cubic meter of
combustible ice gives 164 cubic metres of natural gas which is, according to land resource
ministry, equivalent to 35 arab ton oil [14].
Challenges:
Its usage is likely to damage the environment because the engine using this energy will discharge
carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere.

P-series vehicles:
P-series is relatively a new alternative fuel, which is a blend of methylete-tetrahydrofuran
(MTHF), ethanol and pentanes. Because both ethanol and the MTHF can be produced from
renewable biomass resources, emissions from producing and using P-series are less than those
for gasoline [15].

How internal combustion engine can be run on alternative

fuels?
This objective has been achieved by proportioning and distributing the fuel to each motor
cylinder in relation to the air sucked up, and by heating the fuel to a temperature between its
flame temperature and above its evaporation temperature before entering the cylinder. The
evaporated fuel is fed into the respective cylinder at a flat tangential injection angle, and in the
use of low octane fuel as an extra medium water, or a mixture of water and an anti freezing
agent, is injected in a controlled amount at a steeper injection angle inside the path of the fuel
[16].

References:
1: Gupta, Ram B., 2009 “HYDROGEN FUEL: PRODUCTION, TRANSPORT,
STORAGE”, CRC Press: Taylor & Francis Group, New York, pp.4-6,381-385,388-389.
2: Blarigan, Peter Van, “Advance Internal Combustion Engine” a report by Sandia National
Laboratories, Livermore, CA 9455
3: “Hydrogen Use in Internal Combustion Engines”, revision 0, module-3 of Hydrogen fuel
cell engine, a report by College of Desert (December 2001)
(http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/tech_validation/pdfs/fcm03r0.pdf)
4:www.ballard.com/be informed/fuel cell technology
5: Nowell, Gregory P., “Promise of Methanol Fuel Cell Vehicles” by the Methanol Institute
Washington, D.C.
6:www.tech-faq.com/hybrid-cars.html
7: Klure, Justin “The Future Role of Alternative Fuels” a report by Oregon Department of
Energy
8: “Biodiesel demand , ban come together”, Economic times dated 28/09/09
9:www.wikipedia.com/alternative_fuel_vehicle.htm
10:http://keelynet.com/energy/boese.htm
11: Skala, Stephen F., “Internal combustion engine fueled by NaK” United States Patent 4020798
12: Mu-Yeh Huang, Jai-Houng Leu , “Alternative Fuel Test Study of An Diesel Engine Fed
By Synthetic Fuel Derived From Waste Bilge Oil”, Journal of Marine Science and
Technology,vol-17,No-1,pp.7-12{2009}
13: www.geothermalenergy.com
14: “Ab barf se daudengi auto aur caren” Hindi newspaper “hindustan” dated 4-10-09
15: Tuttle, J., 2001, “Advanced Technology and Alternative Fuel Vehicles” a document by
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), a DOE national laboratory of U.S.A
16: Olsson, John, Olsson, Bertil, Olsson, Gunnar “Internal combustion engine for alternative
fuels” United States Patent 454818