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The mole is the standard method in chemistry for communicating how much of a
substance is present.
This is the fundamental definition of what one mole is. One mole contains as
many entities as there are in 12 grams of carbon-12 (or 0.012 kilogram).
In one mole, there are 6.022 x 1023 atoms. (Avogadro's Number)
Here is another way: there are 6.022 x 1023 atoms of carbon in 12 grams of
carbon-12.
One mole of ANYTHING contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms or molecules.
Molecular Weight
The molecular weight of a substance is the weight in atomic mass units of all the atoms in a
given formula.
First multiply:
2 x 26.98 = 53.96 total weight of all Al in formula
3 x 32.06 = 96.18 total weight of all S in formula
12 x 16.00 = 192.00 total weight of all O in formula
You might be asking why I used oxygen at 16.00 and not 15.9994. Actually, we will be using the
complete molecular weight in our calculations. This will promote consistency in our final answers.
Mole Conversions
When in doubt:
1.0mol of any compound or element = the MW = 6.023X1023atoms
Remember, you may figure out the last percentage by subtracting the total percent from
100, as will be done in a moment.
Step Two:
Step Three:
The numbers in chemical formulas are always integers since they represent actual whole atoms
which combine. The fact that they represent the numbers of atoms and not their masses should
suggest a direction to follow. If we knew the moles of K, Cl and O, we would be that much closer to
knowing the formula.
element moles
potassium 0.0123 Calculating the moles of each individual element to
determine the
chlorine 0.0122
oxygen 0.0368 Chemical formula will set up a direct ratio between each
element.
A closer look at those decimals will show that there is a nearly integer ratio hidden in the data. One
way to get it out is to divide all of the values by the smallest value. That makes the smallest number
1 and hopefully all the other values larger integers.
Therefore, the formula for this compound is KClO3. Such a formula is often called the empirical formula.
It gives the smallest integer ratio, which represents the proportions in which the atoms combine in the
compound. It may also represent the actual or molecular formula.
Important: If the number of moles is 0.5, such as 0.5 or 3.5, you must
round up and that integer must be multiplied by each molar quantity by that
factor.
Hydrates
Some substances incorporate water into their structure when they crystallize. While this
water is not exactly chemically bonded to the compound (it can be "boiled off"), it
usually is combined in a definite ratio (ie. BaCl2 * 2 H2O , CuSO4*5H2O). Determining
the formula of a hydrate is very similar to an empirical formula problem.
Example: 4.94 g of a hydrate of NiSO3 are heated until all the water is driven away. The
mass of the remaining anhydrous substance is 2.78 g. What is the formula of the
hydrate?
NiSO3 *6H2O
Single displacement: This is when one element trades places with another element in a
compound. These reactions come in the general form of:
A + BC ---> AC + B
AX + Y ---> YX + A
One cation replaces another.
Element Y has replaced A (in the compound AX) to form a new compound YX
and the free element A. Remember that A and Y are both cations (positively-
charged ions) in this example.
One example of a single displacement reaction is when magnesium replaces hydrogen in water to
make magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas:
Mg + 2 H2O ---> Mg(OH)2 + H2
Cu + AgNO3 ---> Ag + Cu(NO3)2
Fe + Cu(NO3)2 ---> Fe(NO3)2 + Cu
Double displacement: This is when the anions and cations of two different molecules switch
places, forming two entirely different compounds. These reactions are in the general form:
AB + CD ---> AD + CB
AB + XY ---> AY + XB
During double replacement, the cations and anions of two different compounds
switch places.
A and X are the cations (positively-charged ions) in this example, with B and Y
being the anions (negatively-charged ions).
One example of a double displacement reaction is the reaction of lead (II) nitrate with potassium
iodide to form lead (II) iodide and potassium nitrate:
Pb(NO3)2 + 2 KI ---> PbI2 + 2 KNO3
2KOH + H2SO4 ---> K2SO4 + 2H2O
Decomposition: A decomposition reaction is the opposite of a synthesis reaction - a
complex molecule breaks down to make simpler ones. These reactions come in the
general form:
AB ---> A + B
During decomposition, one compound splits apart into two (or more pieces).
These pieces can be elements or simpler compounds.
One example of a decomposition reaction is the electrolysis of water to make oxygen and
hydrogen gas:
2 H2O ---> 2 H2 + O2
2HgO ---> 2Hg + O2
CaCO3 ---> CaO + CO2
Na2CO3 ---> Na2O + CO2
Combustion: A combustion reaction is when oxygen combines with another compound to form
water and carbon dioxide. These reactions are exothermic, meaning they produce heat. An
example of this kind of reaction is the burning of naphthalene:
C10H8 + 12 O2 ---> 10 CO2 + 4 H2O
Acid-base: This is a special kind of double displacement reaction that takes place when an acid
and base react with each other. The H+ ion in the acid reacts with the OH- ion in the base, causing
the formation of water. Generally, the product of this reaction is some ionic salt and water:
HA + BOH ---> H2O + BA
One example of an acid-base reaction is the reaction of hydrobromic acid (HBr) with sodium
hydroxide:
HBr + NaOH ---> NaBr + H2O
List what type the following reactions are:
6) Pb + O2 --> PbO2
1) double displacement
2) combustion
3) single displacement
4) double displacement
5) acid-base
6) synthesis
7) decomposition
1. Write all soluble, strong electrolytes as separate ions: M n+(aq), X q-(aq). Ions in solution must always
be written with the proper charge superscript.
2. Write all gases, insoluble solids, nonelectrolytes, and weak electrolytes in molecular form. For
example, CO2(g); Fe(OH)3(s); CH3OH(aq); CH3COOH(aq). Do not write charges with any solids or with
molecules in solution.
3. In the final net reaction equation, do not include any substance or ion that is present but that does not
take part in the reaction.
4. While not strictly necessary, it is useful and good practice to specify in parentheses, as shown below,
the state of any substance or ion taking part in a chemical reaction. Ions or non-electrolyte or weak
electrolyte molecules dissolved in water: M n+(aq), Q(aq). Insoluble solids, or solid precipitates formed:
R(s) or R↓ . Gases as reactants or gases evolved as products: G(g) or G.
Important Note: Students often confuse the property of being soluble in water or insoluble in water with
the property of being a strong electrolyte or a weak electrolyte. There is simply no connection whatever
between these two properties. The rules and the exceptions regarding each of these properties must be
learned independently.
1. Substances said to be soluble in water, whether they are solids, liquids, or gases, will dissolve
completely in water (up to a maximum concentration, which may be quite large; certain liquid substances
are in fact miscible with water in all proportions).
Examples of soluble substances: NaCl; KNO3; HCl; NH3; CH3COOH; CH3OH.
a. Substances that are soluble in water may be strong electrolytes: all of the dissolved substance
dissociates entirely into ions, and none of it exists as undissociated molecules dissolved in the solution.
Examples: HCl; HNO3; NaCl; KBr; Na2SO4; NaOH.
b. Substances that are soluble in water may be weak electrolytes: most of the dissolved substance exists as
undissociated molecules in the solution, and only a small fraction is dissociated into ions. Examples: HF;
HNO2; CH3COOH; NH3; C5H5N.
c. Substances that are soluble in water may be non-electrolytes: all of the dissolved substance exists as
undissociated molecules in solution, and no ions at all are formed. Examples: methanol, CH3OH; acetone,
CH3COCH3; glucose, C6H12O6.
2. Substances said to be insoluble in water actually do dissolve, but only to a very small extent (the
maximum dissolved concentration may be extremely small). Examples: AgCl; Ni(OH)2. What does
dissolve, however little that is, may be a strong electrolyte, or may be a weak electrolyte, or may be a non-
electrolyte.
a. Substances that are insoluble in water may be strong electrolytes: all of the dissolved substance,
however little that is, dissociates entirely into ions, and none of it exists as undissociated molecules
dissolved in the solution. Example: AgCl.
b. Substances that are insoluble in water may be weak electrolytes: most of the dissolved substance,
however little that is, exists as undissociated molecules in solution, and only a small fraction is dissociated
into ions. Example: C8H17COOH.
c. Substances that are insoluble in water may be non-electrolytes: all of the dissolved substance, however
little that is, exists as undissociated molecules in solution, and no ions are formed at all. Examples: H2; P4;
S8; cholesterol, C27H46O.
Example:
When a salt solution is added to another salt solution, a precipitate (an insoluble compound) may
form. For example, when aqueous silver nitrate, AgNO3, is added to aqueous sodium chloride, NaCl,
a white solid forms and settles out of solution. The balanced equation for this reaction is
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
To focus on the formation of the precipitate AgCl, it is useful to write the equation to show the ions
separately. This is how they exist in solution:
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Now we can see that only the Ag+ ion and the Cl- ion are involved in the reaction. The sodium and
nitrate ions are called spectators because they are unchanged in the reaction. Cancel out the
spectator ions, and what is left is called the net ionic equation.
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
or Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
Net ionic equations can be written for any ion exchange reaction in solution. To write net ionic
equations, follow these simple rules:
1. Write a balanced equation showing the reactant(s) and product(s) before dissociation.
2. Repeat the equation with reactant(s) and product(s) dissociated where appropriate.
3. Cancel all spectator ions and rewrite the remaining net ionic equation.
Balancing Equations
Using Algebraic Methods
Health hazard alert: The following technique is difficult and involves the creative use of algebra. It is
recommended only for students who are attempting the balancing equation contest, who have a strong
interest in algebra, and lots of time on their hands. It is well beyond the scope of normal balancing of
equations and beyond the scope of chemistry. Read at your own risk. Your teacher will be happy to help
you with these ideas to help you to apply them to any equations.
a H2 + b O2 = c H2O
(2) Write equations, balancing each atom, by multiplying subscripts and coefficients.
for atom H: 2a = 2c, which reduces to "a=c"; for atom O: "2b = c"
(3) Use algebra to relate all coefficients in a single line. "a = c = 2b"
(4) Select a number, usually 1, for the coefficient with the largest multiplier (b).
(5) Using simple algebra, if b = 1, then a = 2 and c = 2.
(6) Write the balanced equation by substituting coefficients for a, b, and c.
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
Limiting Reagent - Reagent that limits the amount of products that can be formed.
For example, nitrogen gas is prepared by passing ammonia gas over solid copper(II) oxide at high
temperatures. The other products are solid copper and water vapor.
If 18.1 g of NH3 are reacted with 90.4 g of CuO, which is the limiting reagent? How many grams of N2
will be formed?
First we compute the number of moles of NH3 (M.W. = 17.0 g/mole) and the number of moles of CuO
(M.W. = 79.5 g/mole).
To determine which reagent is limiting we use the mole ratio from the chemical equation to convert moles
NH3 to moles CuO.
So, only 1.14 moles of CuO is available, therefore CuO is the limiting reagent. That is, CuO will run out
before the NH3 does.