EARTH QUAKES

Global Tectonics or Plate Tectoni cs

 Plate Motions

The Earth's surface or lithosphere is divided into plates (about 7 large plates and 20 smaller
ones).
Lithosphere consists of the rigid, brittle crust and uppermost mantle.
 Basic Terminology of Plate Tectonics

Types of plate bo undaries:

Divergent - where new crust is generated as
the plates pull away from each other.

Convergent - where crust is destroyed as one

plate dives under another.

Transform - where crust is neither produced

nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally
past each other.
Divergent Plate margins or constructive plate margins

• Divergent plate boundaries are

where plates move apart from one
another (tensional stress).
• and Fe).
Examples: mid-ocean ridges, East
African Rift Valley
Convergent Plate margins
 What are Earthquakes?
• The shaking or trembling caused by the sudden
release of energy
• Usually associated with faulting or breaking of rocks
• Continuing adjustment of position results in AFTER
SHOCKS.
• SEISMOLOGY is the science of earthquakes
 Some Great Earth Quakes
• Lisbon Earth quake Nov 1st 1755 (60,000)
• Sicily Earthquake 1908 (76,000)
• Yokohoma Earth quake 1923 (1,40,000)
• North Bihar Earth quake 1934 (12,000)
• Shillong Earth quake 1897 (50,000)
• Uttarkashi earthquake 1991; 6.8 Richter scale) ; 1000
• Latur Earthquake 1993 (6.4 Richter scale); 8000
• Jabalpur Earthquake 1997; 6.0 Richter scale; 40
• Bhuj Earth quake 2001(20,000) Republic day ; 7.6-
8.1 Richter scale
 Causes for Earth quakes

• 1. Surface causes (landslides)

• 2. Volcanic causes
• 3. Tectonic causes (plate movements)
• 4. Reservoir induced seismicity
 What is the Elastic Rebound Theory?
Stresses are developed in rocks

• Explains how energy is

stored in rocks
– Rocks bend until the
strength of the rock
is exceeded
– Rupture occurs and
the rocks quickl y
rebound to an
undeformed shape
– Energy is released in
waves that radiate
outward from the
fault
The Focus and Epicenter of an Earthquake

• The point within Earth

where faulting begins is
the focus, or
hypocenter
• The point directly above
the focus on the surface
is the epicenter
 What are Seismic Wa ves?

• Response of material to the

arrival of energy fronts released
by rupture
• Two types:
– Body waves
• P and S
– Surface waves
• R and L
Body Waves: P and S waves
• Body waves
– P or primary waves
• fastest waves
• travel through solids,
liquids, or gases
• compressional wave,
material movement is
in the same di rection
as wave movement
– S or secondary waves
• slower than P waves
• travel through solids
only
• shear waves - move
material
perpendicular to
wave movement
 Surface Waves or Rayleigh
waves

• Surface Waves
– Travel just below or along the ground ’s surface
– Slower than bod y waves; rolling and side -to-side
movement
– Especially damaging to buildings
Seismographs record
earthquake events

At convergent boundaries,
focal depth increases
along a dipping seismic
zone called a Benioff
zone
How is an Earthquake ’s Epicenter Located?
Seismic wave behavior
– P waves arrive first, then S w aves, then surface w aves
– Average speeds for all these w aves is know n
– After an earthquake, the difference in arrival times at a
seismograph station can be used to calculate the distance
from the seismograph to the epicenter.
 How is an Earthquake’s
Epicenter Located?
• THREE seismograph
stations are needed to
locate the epicenter of an
earthquake
• A circle where the radius
equals the distance to the
epicenter is draw n
• The intersection of the
circles locates the
epicenter
Where Do Earthquakes Occur and How Often?
~80% of all earthquakes occur in the circum -Pacific belt
– most of these result from convergent margin activit y
– ~15% occur in the Mediterranean -Asiatic belt
– remaining 5 % occur in the interiors of plates and on
spreading ridge centers
– more than 150,000 quakes strong enough to be felt are
recorded each year
 Can Earthquakes be Predicted?

Earthquake Precursors
– changes in elevation or tilting of land surface,
fluctuations in groundwater levels, magnetic
field, electrical resistance of the ground
– seismic gaps
 Can Earthquakes be Predicted?
Earthquake Prediction Programs
– include laborator y and field studies of rocks before, during,
and after earthquakes
– monitor activit y along major faults
– produce risk assessments
Measuring Earthquakes

The power (magnitude) of an earthquake is measured on the Richter

scale, using an instrument called a seismometer.

The Richter scale is numbered 0-10 with 10 being the most powerful.
The Richter scale is logarithmic – an earthquake measuring 7 is 10
times more powerful than one measuring 6 and 100 times more
powerful than one measuring 5. Up until 2 on the Richter Scale only
instruments will detect the earthquake. Earthquakes above 6 cause
serious damage and sometimes many deaths

The Mercalli scale measures the damage caused by an earthquake. The

Mercalli scale goes from I to XII
TSUNAMI’S seismic waves- subduction zone related
earth quakes
 Submarine Earth quakes

• Vertical displacement in seabottoms

• Tsunamis
 Social Impacts Economic Impacts Environmental
(impact on people) (impact on Impacts (impact
business in the on the landscape)
area)
Primary effects Death, Businesses & Landscape
Homes destroyed, property destroyed, destroyed,
Services e.g. water
disrupted,
Transport systems
damaged
Secondary effects Diseases Looting, Fires,
Economic effect of Tidal Waves,
restoring Landslides
businesses
The Economics and Societal Impacts of EQs

Damage in Oakland, CA, 1989

• Building collaps e
• Fire
• Tsunami
• Ground failure