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The Ziway-Shala lake basin (main Ethiopian rift, Ethiopia): A revision of basin
evolution with special reference to the Late Quaternary

Article  in  Journal of African Earth Sciences · August 2002

DOI: 10.1016/S0899-5362(02)00036-2

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 Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269
www.elsevier.com/locate/jafrearsci

The Ziway–Shala lake basin (main Ethiopian rift, Ethiopia):

a revision of basin evolution with special reference
to the Late Quaternary
M. Benvenuti a,*, S. Carnicelli b, G. Belluomini c, N. Dainelli a, S. Di Grazia a,
G.A. Ferrari b, C. Iasio b, M. Sagri a, D. Ventra a, Balemwald Atnafu d, Seifu Kebede d

a
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, University of Florence, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Firenze, Italy
b
Dipartimento di Scienza del Suolo; University of Florence, P.le Cascine 15, 50144 Firenze, Italy
c
Istituto Tecnologie Applicate ai Beni Culturali, C.N.R., Via Salaria, Monte Libretti, Roma, Italy
d
Department of Geology and Geophysics, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Received 5 May 2002; accepted 27 May 2002

Abstract
The Ziway–Shala basin, in the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER), is a reference site for regional to global paleoclimatic reconstruc-
tions. We undertook and interpreted a stratigraphical, pedological and geomorphological study, including a new geological map
scale 1:250,000, to provide a Late Quaternary-centred revised geological history of the basin. 1
We mapped several Late Quaternary sedimentary units and arranged them in four major unconformity-bounded stratigraphic
units (synthems), recording equivalent phases of geomorphic change. A new, extensive, soil survey allowed us to establish a pe-
dostratigraphic unit, the TÕora geosol, as a distinctive marker of landscape stability and instability in the area during the Holocene.
Climate change was a major control on geo-morphologic evolution of this area during the intense climate fluctuations of the last
100,000 years. Extensive lake systems developed during relatively humid Last Glacial interstadials and in the early-mid Holocene;
this last was characterized by short, but high-amplitude, regressions during arid pulses. Major lakesÕ lowering occurred in the
terminal Pleistocene and in the last 5000 years. Evidences for high or very high terminal Pleistocene lake levels suggest possible non-
climatic controls on changes in lakesÕ extension and volumes between Late Pleistocene and Holocene. We suggest that modifications
of hydrological thresholds, due to activity of structures parallel and transversal to the MER, established new lakesÕ boundaries
between terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene, setting the maximum level of Holocene lake systems at about 1670 m a.s.l.
The integrated analysis of lacustrine, fluvial, slope and soil systems provided a basis for a general interpretation of relations
between climatic changes and geomorphic processes at a basin scale.
Ó 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Main Ethiopian Rift; Late Quaternary; Fluvio-lacustrine deposition; Geomorphic evolution; Pedostratigraphy

1. Introduction This makes them good proxies for paleoclimate recon-

The Lake Region (Ethiopia) lies in the central sector
of the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER), part of the northern
branch of the East Africa Rift system. The four major
lakes of this area, Ziway, Langano, Abiyata and Shala
(Fig. 1), are set within a tectonically controlled endoreic
basin (Street, 1979; Chernet, 1982). The lakesÕ extension
is then a direct function of local hydrological budget.
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: marcob@geo.unifi.it (M. Benvenuti).
1
The map can be found at the back of this issue.
structions, especially during the high-frequency humid-
arid cycles of Holocene (Gillespie et al., 1983; Alessio
et al., 1996). Morphologic and stratigraphic lines of
evidence of Late Quaternary lake level fluctuations,
supported by extensive radiocarbon datings, were ac-
quired over the last decades (Grove and Goudie, 1971;
Grove et al., 1975; G
eze, 1975; Laury and Albritton,
1975; Gasse and Street, 1978; Street, 1979; Gillespie
et al., 1983; Alessio et al., 1996). This wealth of data
made the Lake Region a reference site for paleoclimate
reconstruction in the tropics (Street-Perrot and Perrot,
1990; Gasse and Van Campo, 1994).

0899-5362/02/$ - see front matter Ó 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 8 9 9 - 5 3 6 2 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 3 6 - 2
248 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269
Fig. 1. Volcano–tectonic features of the Lake Region in the MER.
WFB: Wonji Fault Belt; SDZFZ: Silti-Debre Zeit Fault Zone.
The mapped extension of lacustrine deposits suggests
that a wide lacustrine system covered the central-
northern MER portion in Late Pleistocene, while during
Holocene the maximum northward extension of the
lakes was limited to a few km north of present-day Lake
Ziway. These studies were synthesized in Street (1979),
who documented the periods of maximum lake levels to
be synchronous with higher-latitude warm climatic in-
tervals, contributing to overcome the ‘‘pluvial’’ para-
digm which, for a long time, dictated an opposite
interpretation (Coetzee and van Zinderen Bakker, 1989
for a review).
Modern MER climate is influenced by the annual
shifts of the intertropical convergence zone and by
physiography. The mean annual rainfall along the rift
margins is about 1200 mm; in the TÕora-Mito hills,
rainfall varies between 900 and 1000 mm. The Ziway–
Shala basin proper is drier, with average annual rainfall
around 700 mm. Sparse rainfall data (Sagri, 1998) sug-
gest that areas around lakes Abiyata and Langano are
even drier.
An integrated geological, geomorphological and ped-
ological study of the Ziway–Shala basin was undertaken
to: (1) map and describe, for the first time and through
modern stratigraphic methods, the complex relations
among Late Quaternary deposits, landforms and soils;
(2) update the knowledge of Late Quaternary evolution
of the area and (3) provide bases for a first attempt to
correlate lake fluctuations, as proxies to climate change,
with geomorphic evolution of non-lacustrine areas.
Furthermore, previously described and surveyed volcanic
units (Di Paola, 1972; Woldegabriel et al., 1990) were
integrated into a general geological map.
2. Geology of the lake region
The MER is a NNE-SSW trending rift valley, 80 km
wide and 700 km long, bordered by the Ethiopian Pla-
teau to the west and the Somali Plateau to the east. Its
development has been variedly interpreted: pure tension
(Di Paola, 1972; Woldegabriel et al., 1990; Ebinger et al.,
1993; Chorowicz et al., 1994); transtension (Boccaletti
et al., 1992); oblique rifting (Bonini et al., 1997). The
dense swarms of NNE-SSW trending steep normal
faults, still active on the margins along the Silti-Debre
Zeit Fault Zone (SDZFZ) on the west and the Wonji
Fault Belt (WFB) on the east, accommodate total offsets
of about 1500–2000 m between the rift floor and the
plateaux (Di Paola, 1972; Woldegabriel et al., 1990). At
places, northwest trending transversal faults truncate the
Rift-oriented faults of the plateau margins (Di Paola,
1972; Woldegabriel et al., 1990; Le Turdu et al., 1999).
2.1. Stratigraphic outlines
The central sector of the MER and its shoulders are
made of volcanites and pyroclastic rocks, whereas large
areas of the rift floor are covered by volcano-lacustrine
and fluvio-lacustrine deposits (Figs. 2, 3 and attached
map).
Limited outcrops of Precambrian biotite gneiss,
covered by Early Mesozoic fluvial sandstones, marine
shales and limestones (unit BM), occur in a complex
horst structure on the western margin (Kela horst,
Woldegabriel et al., 1990; Di Paola et al., 1993).
The oldest volcanic rocks (Plateau Trap Series, unit
Ts) are exposed in the western escarpment and consist of
about 1000 m of basaltic lava flows, with interbedded
ignimbritic beds, topped by massive rhyolites and in-
tervening tuffs and basalts (Di Paola, 1972; Merla et al.,
1979; Woldegabriel et al., 1990; Di Paola et al., 1993).
Radiometric ages range from 40 to 25 Ma in the basalts
and from 37 to 27 Ma in the rhyolites (Merla et al.,
1979; Woldegabriel et al., 1990). Middle Miocene to
Pliocene (15–3 Ma) basalt flows, rhyolites and tuffs un-
conformably cap the early Tertiary volcanic units
(Merla et al., 1979; Woldegabriel et al., 1990).
The eastern plateau is covered by Pliocene to early
Pleistocene (4.6–1.6 Ma) shield volcanoes (Chilalo, 4005
m, Kecha, 4245 m Badda, 4170 m). These (unit Ms)
consist of trachytes with subordinate basalts and
 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269 249

Fig. 2. Schematic geological map of the Ziway–Shala lakes basin, focussing on the Late Quaternary unconformity-bounded units defined in this
study. Numbers refer to the 14 C dates in Table 2; G: Gademota section; B: Bulbula Plain sections; A: east Shala section (Ajewa embayment).

mugearites (Di Paola, 1972; Merla et al., 1979; Wolde- Silicic pyroclastic materials cover most of the MER
gabriel et al., 1990; Bigazzi et al., 1993), and of Miocene floor (Mohr, 1962; Di Paola, 1972; Woldegabriel et al.,
phonolites (Chike Mt). 1990); they are Early to Middle Pliocene (4.2–3 Ma,
250 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269
Fig. 3. Chronostratigraphic framework for the Plio-Quaternary vol-
canic and sedimentary units represented in the attached map and de-
fined in this study.
Woldegabriel et al., 1990), mainly peralkaline rhyolitic
ignimbrites, interlayered with basalts and tuffs (unit Pq)
and associated with layered, unwelded pumices. The
thickness of the ignimbrites is not known, but outcrops
(Di Paola, 1972; Woldegabriel et al., 1990) and well data
(Gianelli and Teklemariam, 1993) suggest it exceeds
500–600 m.
Alkaline and peralkaline rhyolitic lava flows and
domes, associated with pumice and ash (unit Pa) rep-
resent the late silicic volcanic events (Di Paola, 1972).
These lavas were erupted from Late Pliocene to Middle
Pleistocene and, in some places, crop out as remnants of
large calderas. The Gademota Ridge, dated 1.30–1.27
Ma (Laury and Albritton, 1975; Mohr et al., 1980;
Woldegabriel et al., 1990) is one such remnant. It rises in
an arc structure, 25–30 km in diameter, up to 400 m
above the plain west of Lake Ziway.
A more recent volcanic unit, (Qb), crops out along
the SDZFZ and the WFB (Di Paola, 1972; Kazmin et al.,
1980); it is made up of basaltic lava flows, associated
with hyaloclastites and scoria cones. The thickness of
this unit is only a few dozen meters; it is very recent, as
testified by a radiometric age of 0.13 Ma (Woldegabriel
et al., 1990) and by sub-historical lava flows (Di Paola,
1972; Di Paola et al., 1993).
Young volcanoes and calderas, such as the Bora–
Bericcio complex, the Alutu volcano, the Ficke, OÕa and
Corbetti calderas, are made up of rhyolitic lava flows,
unwelded pumice flows, pumice falls and ashes (units
Qr and Qx). Obsidian flows represent the final product
of the volcanic activity (Di Paola, 1972; Mohr et al.,
1980). These recent volcanoes started to be active from
the Middle Pleistocene (about 0.25 Ma, Di Paola, 1972;
Mohr et al., 1980; Woldegabriel et al., 1990) with in-
termittent Late Holocene activity; obsidian flows and
pumices were dated 2000 y BP (Gianelli and Teklema-
riam, 1993) and very recent ash deposits 1500 and 230
y BP (Haynes and Haas, 1974). Many of these volcanoes
are presently in a fumarolic stage (Di Paola, 1972).
Within the volcanic and volcaniclastic succession (i.e.
unit Qr) of the OÕa caldera, Middle Pleistocene fluvio-
lacustrine sands and clays (unit Qfl) occur (Mohr et al.,
1980; Le Turdu et al., 1999).
Late Quaternary fluvio-lacustrine sediments cover a
large area of the central sector of the MER (Merla et al.,
1979). They were laid down in a very wide lake which, in
the past, occupied most of the rift floor. The four pre-
sent-day lakes (Ziway, Langano, Abiyata, Shala) are the
remnants of that ancient lacustrine basin. These depos-
its, and the colluvial–alluvial aprons, are the main topic
of this study and will be described in detail in the fol-
lowing sections.
2.2. Summary of the Main Ethiopian Rift development
Eruption of huge volumes of volcanites started in the
MER and the adjacent plateaux in Late Eocene–Early
Oligocene (Merla et al., 1979; Kazmin et al., 1980;
Woldegabriel et al., 1990; Ebinger et al., 1993; Zanettin,
1993), preceding rift formation.
The early rifting phase (Late Oligocene–Early Mio-
cene) was characterized by formation of a series of al-
ternating half-grabens (Woldegabriel et al., 1990) and/or
by downwarping (Merla et al., 1979; Abbate and Sagri,
1980; Kazmin et al., 1980). This was followed by the
development of full symmetrical grabens and rift-in-rift
structures (Di Paola, 1972; Woldegabriel et al., 1990; Le
Turdu et al., 1999).
The most important volcano–tectonic event in the
central sector of the MER occurred in Early Pliocene,
with the eruption of voluminous flows of rhyolitic ig-
nimbrites and the collapse of very large calderas (Di
Paola, 1972; Woldegabriel et al., 1990). The full sym-
metrical Rift configuration was achieved during this
paroxystic event (Woldegabriel et al., 1990).
From early Pleistocene to the present, tectonic and
volcanic activity was concentrated along the WFB, and
successively along the SDZFZ (Mohr, 1962; Di Paola,
1972; Bigazzi et al., 1993).
Since Middle Pleistocene (or earlier?) fluvio-lacustrine
basins developed along the WFB, under a tectonic–
volcanic control (Le Turdu et al., 1999). Successively
(late Pleistocene–Holocene) a fluvio-lacustrine basin
occupied large areas of the MER floor (Di Paola, 1972;
Laury and Albritton, 1975; Bigazzi et al., 1993) ex-
tending, in late Pleistocene, up to Mojo, 50 km north of
Lake Ziway.
2.3. Evidence of Late Quaternary lake fluctuations and
soil-forming processes
Striking morphological evidence of lacustrine reces-
sional stillstands, such as terraces and stranded palaeo-
shorelines (Fig. 4), have long been recognized in the
basin (Nilsson, 1940). Lacustrine terraces (V–I from
 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269
Fig. 4. Synthesis of the main geomorphic features related to Late Quaternary lake fluctuations (data from this study, AERMAP, 1969; Laury and
Albritton, 1975; Street, 1979).
higher to lower, after Laury and Albritton, 1975) are
only present around Lake Ziway. Relic shorelines, al-
though also recognized on the terraces, are mainly de-
veloped in the southern basin (Fig. 4). The V terrace lies
above an escarpment at 1670 m a.s.l., and has been
considered of Pleistocene age (Laury and Albritton,
1975; Street, 1979). Radiocarbon dates (Haynes and
Haas, 1974; Laury and Albritton, 1975) give minimum
ages for some of the Holocene terraces. The develop-
ment of terrace IV, when a single lake existed, is
bracketed between 9600 and 9400 y BP, with a subse-
quent flooding at about 5400–5100 y BP. Minimum age
of terrace III ranges from 5600 to 5300 y BP. Our ob-
servations show that the escarpment separating terrace
IV from terrace III tends to become convex south of
Ziway Lake (Fig. 4), suggesting a separation of the
palaeoZiway lake from the southern Langano–Abiyata–
Shala Lake around 5600–5300 y BP.
Two groups of shorelines can be identified north of
Lake Abiyata. Degraded shorelines, between 1600 and
1650 m a.s.l., are separated from fresh ones by an ap-
parently featureless surface, standing at 1590–1600 m
a.s.l. (Fig. 4). The degraded shorelines are interpreted as
251
further evidence of the mid-Holocene separation of Zi-
way from the southern lakes, the featureless surface
representing a very rapid drop in lake level, followed by
a stillstand at about 1600 m a.s.l. (Street, 1979).
Morphological evidence of lake-level lowering and
complete desiccation is represented by a N–S trending
depression, 2 km wide and 15 km long (Fig. 4), about 2
m deeper than the average Lake Ziway bottom (AER-
MAP, 1969), interpreted as a submerged palaeovalley.
A major morphological feature is the Meki–Dubeta
col, a saddle in the Meki–Awash divide that, during
Holocene, controlled the maximum lake level elevation
(1670 m a.s.l) in the Ziway–Shala basin (Venzo, 1971;
Street, 1979).
Three main lithostratigraphic units were established
within the Late Pleistocene–Holocene deposits of the
study area (Street, 1979, Table 1).
The Meki Formation, made up of alluvial and fluvio-
lacustrine deposits, records the fluctuations in the Meki
River base-level.
The Bulbula Formation is composed of lacustrine
diatomaceous marls and calcareous sands, grading into
and interbedded with thick diatomite units. A thick
252 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269
Table 1
Correlative scheme of the lithostratigraphy established by Street (1979) for the Late Quaternary succession and the stratigraphic units defined in this
study
UBSU defined in Stratigraphy in the Stratigraphy in the Bulbula area:
this study Gademotta area Bulbula Formationa
This study Street (1979)
Late Holocene (5000 y BP-present)
Synthem 4 G4a–b
Early-mid Holocene (10,000–5000 y BP)
Synthem 3 G3a–b DW3, 4 K6
Latest Pleistocene (20,000–10,000 y BP)
Synthem 2 G2a–d Abernosa Pumice
Member
Late Pleistocene (100,000–20,000 y BP)
Synthem 1 ? DW2a,b K3,4
G1b–c Depositional hiatus
G1a DW1a,b K1,2
a
Members and locality units––DW: Deka Wede site, K: Kurkura site.
b
Named and numbered units––U: upperstream reach, UM: Upperstream middle reach, D: downstream reach, DM: downstream middle reach.
(about 30 m), volcaniclastic, latest Pleistocene unit
(Abernosa Pumice Member) is a key level in this for-
mation, marking, through erosive surfaces and palaeo-
sols, the transition from Upper Pleistocene to Holocene
deposits (Gasse and Street, 1978).
The Ajewa Formation, in the eastern shore of Lake
Shala, is composed of late Pleistocene and Holocene
deep to shallow lacustrine, shoreface, alluvial and col-
luvial deposits.
The synthesis of Late Quaternary lake fluctuations is
represented by StreetÕs classic diagram, plotting lake
surface elevation, as documented by landforms and de-
posits, vs. time, assessed through an extensive radiocar-
bon chronology (Table 2). At least seven major
lacustrine highstands (Ziway–Shala I–VII) were recog-
nized (the latest Pleistocene–Holocene fluctuations are
reported in Fig. 5a), with a minor one (Ziway–Shala
VIII), possibly occurred in historical times (Street, 1979).
The first three highstands occurred during Late
Pleistocene: Ziway–Shala I was approximately dated at
before 50,000 y BP; nevertheless, a maximum age close
to 100,000 y BP can be hypothesized basing on data
from several authors (Laury and Albritton, 1975; Street,
1979; Bigazzi et al., 1993; Le Turdu et al., 1999); Ziway–
Shala II between 28,000–30,000 y BP; Ziway–Shala III
between 26,000–22,000 y BP. The post-LGM highstands
(Fig. 5a) are: Ziway–Shala IV, around 12,000–11,000
y BP; Ziway–Shala V, around 9000 y BP; Ziway–Shala
VI, around 6000–5000 y BP ; Ziway–Shala VII: around
2500–2000 y BP.
The bases for soil stratigraphy in the area were laid
down by Laury and Albritton (1975), Verheye (1978)
and Street (1979). The common observation was the
Stratigraphy in the Ajewa area: Stratigraphy in the
Ajewa Formationb Meki River area
This study Street (1979) This study Street (1979)
? DM3, UM5, U3, D4, A4a–c ?
DM6, D5, D6
B3 UM3, UM4, D2, D3, A3a–f
U2, Roricha fish bed
B2 DM3b, UM1, ?
DM4, U1
B1c
? DM3a–b A1b–c
B1a–b D1–DM1 A1a
stark contrast between well developed Luvisols on
Pleistocene terraces and soils on Holocene materials.
Street (1979) reviewed Laury and AlbrittonÕs observa-
tions of buried palaeosols within the Gademota For-
mation, and observed clear hints of polycyclicity in the
soils on Pleistocene terraces. She concluded that well
developed Luvisols were characteristic of warm-humid
intervals in the Rift valley bottom. Supported by dating
of buried soils by Haynes and Haas (1974) and Laury
and Albritton (1975), she considered the last such in-
terval to coincide with the early Holocene lacustrine
highstands.
3. Methodology
The morphologic and stratigraphic study of the Late
Quaternary in the Ziway–Shala lakes basin was carried
out by integrating interpretation of satellite images and
aerial photographs, measurement of stratigraphic logs,
facies analysis, soil survey, radiocarbon datings of la-
custrine (mixed shells, organic muds) and non-lacustrine
(charcoal, land snails, vertebrate bones) materials. Sev-
eral uncalibrated 14 C dates, available from literature
(Street, 1979 and Gillespie et al., 1983 for synthesis; Le
Turdu et al., 1999) and newly obtained 14 C dates were
compared to improve the chronological framework
(Table 2). The main synthesis of this integrated analysis
is a geological map of the study area, scale 1:250,000
(Table 1), that for the first time depicts in details the
Late Quaternary geology of the Lake Region.
Reconstruction of soil stratigraphy is based on the
most extensive survey in the Ziway–Shala Basin to date,
 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269 253

Table 2
List of 14 C dates reported
14
Area Organic material- Lab. no Material dated C age (yr BP) Cal age Approximate
bearing deposits height of dated
material m a.s.l
Gademotta–Ziway 1-alluvial dep. B-098944* Bovid bone 230
40 AD 1640–1685
AD 1740–1810
AD 1930–1950
2-paleosol SMU-83° Charcoal 230
50 ?
3-paleosol SMU-84° Carbonized wood 1540
60 ?
4-lac. sand SMU-65°° Bulinus shell 5160
75 1664
5-lac. sand SMU-67°° Bulinus shell 5410
105 1664
6-lac. sand SMU-69°° Bulinus shell 5730
65 1653
7-lac. sand SMU-68°° Melanoides shell 5930
95 1653
8-lac. sand SMU-66°° Corbicula shell 8240
295 1653
9-lac. sand SMU-63°° Corbicula shell 9450
105 1659
10-lac. sand SMU-64°° Melanoides shell 9690
105 1659
11-paleosol SMU-86° Charcoal 10; 333
90 ?
12-paleosol SMU-72° Charcoal 11; 510
110 ?
13-lac. sand B-098943* Mixed shell 30; 440
160
14-deltaic sand B-114021* Corbicula shell 39,170
Bulbula Plain 15-lac. sand Gif.4014° Melanoides shell 5300
120 1613
16-shelly sand Not publ.°° Shell 5320
145 1645
17-shelly sand Gif-4012°° Bellamya shell 5810
125 1613
18-shelly sand Gif-4013°° Bulinus shell 5910
125 1613
19-colluvium Q-1359°° Mixed shell 5940
70 1634
20-lac. sand SUA-499° Bellamya shell 6060
120 1643
21-shelly. sand SUA-503°° Bellamya shell 6135
115 1622
22-paleosol Gif-3984°° Soil org. matter 8520
200 1619
23-colluvium Q-1358°° Mixed shell 9270
85 1634
24-shelly sand Not publ.°° Shell 9720
215 1646
25-paleosol Gif-3986°° Soil org. matter 10; 450
180 1615
26-paleosol SUA-494°° Soil org. matter 11; 870
300 1615
27-alluvial dep. SUA-504°° Caelatura shell 12; 230
150 1602
28-lac.mud Gif-3985° Marls 12; 200
200 1615
29-lac.mud Gif-3987° Carbonate 22; 050
650 1607
30-lac.mud Gif-3988° Marls 24; 000
750 ?
31-lac. sand SMU-61° Corbicula shell 26; 780
440 1601
32- lac. sand B-114023* Mixed shell 27, 040
33-paleosol SUA-588° Charcoal 27; 050
1540 1606
34-lac. sand Gif-4010° Corbicula shell 28; 200
1000 1638
35- lac. sand B-114022* Mixed shell 47,470
Abiyata–Langano 36-lac. mud Not publ.§* ? 865
60 230 BP ?
37-lac. mud Not publ.@ Organic mud 1540
200 ?
38-lac. mud Not publ.@ Organic mud 1600
150 ?
39-lac. mud Not publ.@ Organic mud 1720
80 ?
40-lac. mud Not publ.§* ? 1790
70 1380 BP ?
41-lac. mud Not publ.§* ? 4920
70 5260 BP ?
42-lac. sand Not publ.§* Charcoal 5700
110 ?
43-lac. mud Not publ.§* ? 5970
80 6560 BP 1589
44-lac. silt Not publ.§* ? 6190
60 6840 BP ?
45-lac. mud Not publ.§* ? 7280
80 7670 BP ?
46-lac. sand Gif.3965°° Organic mud 7970
150 ?
47-lac. mud Gif.3967°° Organic fraction 9550
170 1570
48-lac. mud Gif.3966°° Organic fraction 9810
170 1571
49-paleosol Gif.3968°° Soil org. matter 9950
170 1586
50-lac. sand Not publ.§* ? 10; 040
100 11,020 BP ?
51-lac. sand Gif.3969°° Organic mud 10; 370
180 1583
52-mud Not publ.§* ? 11; 350
110 12,010 BP
53-diatomite Not publ.§* Melanoides shell 28; 300
400 ?

Shala est 54-alluvial dep. Gif.4011°° Charcoal 2510
100 1600

55-alluvial dep. R2275 Charcoal 2665
33 826–803 BC 1600
56-shelly sand Q-1369°° Mixed shell 5530
65 ?
57-shelly sand Q-1557°° Mixed shell 5680
55 ?
(continued on next page)
254 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269

Table 2 (continued)
14
Area Organic material- Lab. no Material dated C age (yr BP) Cal age Approximate
bearing deposits height of dated
material m a.s.l
58-shelly sand Q-1361°° Fishbone collag. 5750
70 ?
59- shelly sand B-1140024* Mixed shell 5820
60-shelly sand GaK-3387°° Melanoides shell 5980
100 5263–5224 BC ?
61-lac. sand R2299 Mixed shell 6288
31 5321–5251 BC 1624
62-lac. sand R2295 Mixed shell 6343
58 5437–5331 BC 1622
63-lac. sand R2296 Mixed shell 6465
46 1559
64-shelly sand SUA-497°° Melanoides shell 6495
150 ?
65-lac. sand Q-1101°° Shell 6860
125 6461–6371 BC 1651
66-lac. sand R2294 Mixed shell 7595
76 1558
67-alluvial dep. Q-1114°° Melanoides shell 8655
175 8121–7945 BC 1561
68-peaty mud R2276 Organic mud 9017
146 8950–8535 BC 1570
69-lac. sand R2277 Mixed shell 9578
48 1630
70-shelly sand GaK-3386°° Melanoides shell 9580
195 9253–9049 BC 1642
71-lac. sand R2297 Mixed shell 9926
57 1650
72-paleosol HAR-2787°° Carbonized wood 9800
100 1557
73-shelly sand SUA-501°° Melanoides shell 9840
140 10,350–10,058 BC 1633
74-paleosol SUA-500°° Charcoal 10; 220
140 1629
75-lac. sand R2274 Mixed shell 10; 311
64 1650
76-shelly sand SUA-502°° Melanoides shell 10; 350
150 1640
77-lac. limest. GaK-3748° Algal carbonate 14; 400
750 1630
78- shelly sand B-114025* Mixed shell 30,620
Abay-Bobodo-west 79-alluvial dep. B-098947* Bovid bone 250
50 AD 1515–1585
Ziway
AD 1625–1685
AD 1740–1810
AD 1930–1950
80-colluvium B-098948* Bovid bone 350
60 AD 1435–1665
81-alluvial dep. B-098945* Limicolaria shell 950
50 AD 1000–1215
82-T’ora Geosol B-152142* Charcoal 5780
60 BC 4760–4480
(°): Street (1979); (°°): Gillespie et al. (1983); (@): Bonnefille et al. (1986); (§): Tiercellin et al. (1997) and Le Turdu et al. (1999); bold data: this study;
(*): AMS dates. Approximate locations of the dated material are given in Fig. 2.

with more than 100 soil profiles described plus full re-
consideration, in both pedostratigraphic and pedogeo-
graphical terms, of data from the previously cited
authors and others (Makin et al., 1976; Van Sleen,
1989). Finally, soil stratigraphy was cross-interpreted
with Late Quaternary deposits stratigraphy.
4. Description of data
4.1. The stratigraphy of Late Quaternary colluvial,
alluvial and lacustrine deposits
major unconformity-bounded units (i.e. synthems; Sal-
vador, 1987; ISSC, 1994). Detailed stratigraphic surveys
within the main synthems allow recognition of several
lesser-rank unconformity-bounded units. Due to the
small scale, the attached map refers to the lithostrati-
graphic character of the deposits included within the
synthems. The link between mapped units and synthems
will be described in the following sections (Fig. 3). Note
that deposits included within Synthem 2 are represented
in the map by colluvial and alluvial units (Qu and Qc)
which, for scale constraints, cannot be further differen-
tiated.

The new geological survey of the study area allows us
to distinguish, within Late Quaternary deposits, several
stratigraphic units; these result from the integration of:
(1) morphologic, lithologic, sedimentologic features; (2)
a detailed radiocarbon chronology and (3) the recogni-
tion of unconformities of different rank, from detailed
morphologic and stratigraphic observations. A new
stratigraphic framework for the Late Quaternary sedi-
mentary deposits is presented here, establishing four
4.1.1. Synthem 1
The oldest synthem is represented by colluvial (unit
Qu p.p.), lacustrine, fluvio-deltaic, and volcaniclastic
sediments (unit Ql1 ), arranged in lesser unconformity-
bounded units. These deposits rest unconformably on
surface S1 (Fig. 6a and b), overlying Plio-Pleistocene
volcanic rocks and older slope deposits (i.e. units Qu
p.p. and Qcg) (Laury and Albritton, 1975, Le Turdu
et al., 1999). They are bounded on top by erosive or
 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269
non-depositional surfaces, morphologically expressed in
Lake Ziway area by the tread of terrace V and by the
escarpment separating it from terrace IV (Laury and
Albritton, 1975, Fig. 4).
Lake sediments (unit Ql1 ) of this synthem outcrop on
the east shore of Lake Shala, in the Bulbula River and
Deka Wede gorges (Gasse and Street, 1978; Street, 1979)
and finally on the slopes of the Gademota Ridge (Laury
and Albritton, 1975).
Basal deposits in the Gademota area consist (Fig. 7)
of delta front sands about 39,000 y old (G1a, Fig. 6f),
abruptly overlain by horizontally bedded diatomaceous
silts, with pumice horizons in the uppermost part (G1b).
Further up, resting erosively above the previous depos-
its, alluvial, lacustrine rippled sands (Fig. 8a) and di-
atomaceous silts 30,000 y old, occur (G1c, Fig. 6e).
In the Bulbula River gorge (Fig. 9), the lowermost
Upper Pleistocene deposits (B1a, Fig. 6a) are composed
of fluvio-deltaic sands and laminated diatomaceous silts
and marls; non-lacustrine deposits directly overlie this
Fig. 5. Curves of lake fluctuations during the latest Pleistocene and the
Holocene (a) for the Ziway–Shala lakes basin (from Gillespie et al.,
1983) and (b) for the Lake Shala (this study, Alessio et al., 1996). SD:
Lake Shala level datum (i.e. 1972 average lake level).
255
basal unit. Above these, two thin levels of lacustrine
diatomaceous silts are present (B1b, Fig. 6a); a shell
sample collected in the uppermost one yielded an AMS
age of about 47,000 y BP. Upper Pleistocene, lacustrine
diatomaceous silts and sands (B1c) are present in the
Bulbula Plain (Fig. 6d), erosively overlying sub-unit
B1b. Published and new 14 C dates enable us to constrain
the chronology of these deposits between about 27,000
to about 22,000 y BP.
In east Shala (Fig. 10), strongly deformed, thinly
laminated diatomites (A1a, Fig. 6b) are unconformably
capped by deltaic sands and lacustrine massive diat-
omites (A1b). The latter, in turn, are erosively overlain
by alluvial, colluvial and shallow lacustrine sands and
silts (A1c), bearing lacustrine shells about 30,000 y old.
On the whole, Synthem 1 is Late Pleistocene in age.
4.1.2. Synthem 2
The second synthem is composed of very thin (few
tens of m) alluvio-colluvial, volcaniclastic and fluvio-
deltaic deposits (units Qu p.p. and Qc p.p., not repre-
sented in detail in the map), resting erosively on older
deposits through surface S2. On the Gademota slopes
(Fig. 7), this unit is represented by alluvial sands and
gravels (G2a, Fig. 6c), overlain by alluvially reworked
fine-grained greyish tuffs (G2b). These deposits are
capped by a thin (2 m) level of delta front sands (G2c);
these crop out at about 1730 m a.s.l., hence representing
one of the highest lake levels documented in the area
(see also Laury and Albritton, 1975). These deposits are
in turn erosively overlain by alluvio-colluvial sands and
silts (G2d), over which a pedocomplex, widespread in
the MER, developed (the TÕora geosol, see below).
In the Bulbula River Plain (Fig. 9), 15–20 m thick
subaerial pumice fall deposits (B2, corresponding to the
Abernosa Pumice Member, Gasse and Street, 1978;
Street, 1979), rest unconformably on synthem 1 depos-
its, and are correlated to G2b deposits. The latter, in
fact, could represent distal fall deposits, in respect with
the coeval flow deposits accumulated at the base of the
Alutu Caldera.
4.1.3. Synthem 3
The third synthem is made up of lacustrine, fluvio-
deltaic, colluvial, and volcaniclastic sediments, with in-
tervening buried soils (units Qu p.p., Qc p.p., Qf p.p.,
Qdm p.p., Qd p.p., Qt2 , Ql2 , Qs2 ); these overlie older
deposits through erosional surface S3 (Fig. 6d and e). In
the Ziway area, morphological features related to this
synthem are the treads of terraces IV and III, their
linking escarpment, and the older, poorly preserved,
palaeoshorelines north of Abiyata Lake.
In the Gademota area (Fig. 7), synthem 3 deposits
rest, through a high relief erosional surface (S3), on the
deposits of Synthems 1 and 2; they are dominantly
represented by alluvial and colluvial sands and silts,
256 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269

Fig. 6. Unconformable contacts among the synthems defined in this study at different locations in the Ziway–Shala basin: (a) Synthem 1 deposits in
the Bulbula Plain, the outcrop is about 25 m high; (b) Synthem 1 deposits in the east Shala section, outcrop is about 4 m high; (c) Synthem 2 deposits
in the Gademota section, the outcrop is about 15 m high; (d) Synthem 3 deposits in the Bulbula Plain, person for scale; (e) Synthem 3 deposits in the
Gademota section, the outcrop is about 8 m high; (f) and (g) synthems 1, 3 and 4 deposits in the Gademota section, persons for scale.

bearing a well developed Luvisol (G3a, Fig. 6e). La-
custrine deposits are represented by massive diatomites
(G3b, Fig. 6f); these crop out at about 1670 m, marking
a high-level close to or at the Meki–Dubeta col over-
flow.
In the Bulbula Plain too (Fig. 9), Synthem 3 deposits
unconformably overlie Synthem 2 ones (Fig. 6d). Here,
lacustrine deposits range from relatively open and deep
lake diatomites and marls to sandy deposits, bearing
shell beds (Fig. 8c), referred to shallower lake margin
settings.
In the East Shala outcrops (Fig. 10) (Grove et al.,
1975; Street, 1979; Gillespie et al., 1983), Synthem 3
deposits rest unconformably on the strongly deformed
Middle Pleistocene volcaniclastic rocks and on Synthem
1 deposits. They are made up of seven lesser unconfor-
mity-bounded units (A3a–g). These units, a few meters
thick, show a recurring internal stratigraphic arrange-
ment (Fig. 8b). Alluvial or colluvial sands and silts at the
base, overlain by marginal lake muds and sands, record
periods of low lake level and subaerial deposition, fol-
lowed by renewed flooding. In some cases, regressive
deltaic or shoreface sands rest above the lacustrine de-
posits. The stratigraphical and chronological revision of
the Ajewa section (Alessio et al., 1996), improved the
definition of Holocene lake Shala fluctuations.
About 39 samples were collected in sub-units A3a–g,
and within sub-unit A4a, for paleontological analysis
(Balemwald, 1998). Together with mollusc shells and
fish remains, most of these samples produced a quite
rich ostracod fauna, that was studied for the taxo-
nomic and paleoecological significance. Three main
M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269 257

Fig. 6 (continued )

Fig. 7. Schematic stratigraphy at the Gademota section.

258 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269

Fig. 8. Examples of sedimentary facies in the Late Quaternary succession of the lake region: (a) wave ripples in lower shoreface/delta front silty sands
of sub-unit G1c in the Gademota section, hammer for scale; (b) facies succession in sub-unit A3c in the east Shala section, the outcrop is about 4 m
high; (c) typical shell bed in the lacustrine deposits of Synthem 3 exposed in the Bulbula River gorge (B3 unit in Fig. 9), hammer for scale; (d)
foresetted sand of a Gilbert delta front erosively capped by wave ripples sands (sub-unit A4b) in the east Shala section, hammer for scale; (e) vertical
stacking of alluvial gravel and sand at the base of sub-unit G4a in the Gademota section. Arrow indicate a bed derived from bank failure within the
alluvial valley filled with sub-unit G4a, hammer for scale; (f) the general aspect of the fine-grained upper portion of sub-unit G4a made of silty sands
with intervening paleosols, person for scale.

Fig. 9. Correlation of measured stratigraphic logs in the Bulbula Plain.

 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269
Fig. 10. Stratigraphic scheme of the units defined in the east Shala section. Detailed lithological logs in sub-units A3a–A3f are reported in Fig. 14.
paleoecological groups were defined within the recog-
nized ostracod assemblages, expressing the degree of
salinity of the palaeolake water:
(a) The mesohaline water group is characterized by
Limnocythere assemblages, consisting mainly of
one or two species of this genus with a very subordi-
nate amount of other ostracods;
(b) The oligohaline water group, characterized by an as-
semblage dominated by the noded variety of Cypri-
deis nodosa;
(c) The freshwater group, represented by a diversified
assemblage of species such as Limnocythere thomasi
thomasi, Limnocythere aff. tudoranceai, Darwinula
stevensoni, Gomphocythere angulata, noded Cypri-
deis torosa, Ilyocypris gibba, Zonocypris costata,
Candonopsis sp. etc.
The distribution and relative proportions of the dif-
ferent groups within the sampled sediments, together
with geochemical analysis of the ostracod shells, was
related to changes in lake salinity due to changes in
water volume as the effect of hydroclimatic variations
(see below).
4.1.4. Synthem 4
The fourth synthem is represented by lacustrine, flu-
vio-deltaic and colluvial deposits (units Qu p.p., Qc p.p.
Qf p.p., Qdm p.p., Qd p.p., Qt3 , Qb, Qs3 , Qp) uncon-
formably overlying older deposits through surface S4
(Fig. 6f and g), and capped by a modern erosional–non-
depositional surface. The morphologic signature of this
259
phase in the Lake Ziway area is represented by the
treads and escarpment of terraces II and I, while in the
southern basin it is marked by the fresh recessional
shorelines north of Lake Abiyata (Fig. 4).
On the slopes of the Gademota Ridge (Fig. 7), this
synthem is represented by alluvial–colluvial sediments
(G4a, Fig. 6f and G4b, Fig. 6g), filling paleovalleys in-
cised in the deposits of underlying units. The fills are
characterized by basal alluvial gravelly sands (Fig. 8e),
topped by fine-grained alluvial–colluvial sediments (Fig.
8f) which, in most cases, form the bulk of the fill.
Charcoal and vertebrate bones found in these deposits
yielded 14 C ages of, respectively, 4611 y BP (G4a) and
230
40 y BP (G4b).
In the Ajewa embayment (Fig. 10) Synthem 4 is
represented by three sub-units (A4a–c). The oldest one is
A4a, 1.5 m thick and resting erosively on sub-unit A1c.
It is made of alluvial gravelly sands, overlain by low-
angle cross-stratified sands, interpreted as shoreface
deposits. Charcoal within the alluvial deposits yielded a
14
C age of 2665
33 y BP, very close to the 2510
100
reported by Street (1979), from charcoal probably col-
lected in the same sediments. This age is considered to
pre-date a lacustrine stillstand at about 1600 m a.s.l,
when the southern lakes were again united (Gillespie
et al., 1983). Cross-stratified deltaic sands up to 6 m
thick (A4b, Fig 8d) are spectacularly exposed a few
hundred meters north of the Ajewa section. Sands of the
recessional stranded beach (A4c) are visible close to the
present Lake Shala shore. Unit 4 represents the time
interval corresponding to late Holocene, from about
5000 BP to present.
260 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269

5. Late quaternary soils over Rift floor ignimbrites, Middle–Upper Pleistocene

colluvial–alluvial aprons mantling the Gademota Ridge
An outstanding finding of the soil survey was the (Gademota Formation, Laury and Albritton, 1975) and
presence and wide diffusion (Fig. 11) of a group of soils over Synthem 1 and 2 lacustrine and non-lacustrine
sharing a series of major features. Such soils were found deposits. Also, these soils were found on a wide range of

Fig. 11. Distribution of the TÕora geosol west of Lake Ziway.

 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269 261

landforms, including the highest preserved surfaces and

the bottoms of depressed grabens, within a rather wide
range of present slope gradients. They were found both
in the moister TÕora-Mito hills and in the subarid central
lacustrine plain.
Soils of this group are polycyclic; they are usually
made up of a lower soil profile, fairly homogenous
across different parent materials and landforms, and of
at least two pedogenized tephra layers, clearly separated
in time. It is significant that such tephra layers were only
recognised in association with the same older soil. These
soils are then considered pedocomplexes (Morrison,
1977).
The horizon sequence of the older soil (Fig. 12, Table
3) starts with a strongly expressed Argic horizon (Btb),
black coloured, highly clayey (50–70%), with strong
angular blocky or prismatic structure and thick clay
coatings. One of the few characters of this older soil that
show clear variability among different observations is
related to the expression, in this horizon, of strong vertic
features like slickensides and sphenoids. These features
clearly indicate the presence of smectite minerals; in fact,
smectites were found, by XRD analysis, to be the
dominant secondary clay, whether vertic features were
present or not in the profile.
This horizon grades into a thick, up to 4 m, sequence
of Bt and BC horizons, reddish coloured with fine angular
structure, thinner coatings and ubiquitous pressure faces.
Below the reddish Bt and/or BC horizons, a contin-
Fig. 12. A TÕora geosol profile; the upper soil of the pedocomplex is
uous Petrocalcic horizon (phase IV of Gile et al., 1966)
relatively thin and appears to derive from the latest tephra; the lower
is found throughout the area; only towards the western soil shows modrately expressed vertic features: (a) upper soil; (b) lower
border it is replaced by large, hard, carbonate concre- soil with slickensides at base of blackish Bt horizon; (c) Petrocalcic
tions. horizon.

Table 3
Representative occurrence of T’ora geosol: characteristic soil horizons and their chemical analyses
Horizon Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) Exch. Ca Exch. Mg Exch. Na Exch. K ECEC ESP (%)
(C molc kg1 ) (C molc kg1 ) (C molc kg1 ) (C molc kg1 ) (C molc kg1 )
A 28.5 40.2 31.3 10.2 1.9 0.0 1.2 13.3 0.0
AC 26.4 41.9 31.7 8.3 2.1 0.8 0.6 11.8 6.5
C 33.7 53.1 13.2 1.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 2.0 8.9
2Btb 24.4 39.7 35.9 10.1 1.7 1.1 1.3 14.4 7.5
3Btssb 13.0 24.4 62.6 21.5 3.4 2.2 2.3 29.4 7.3
3BCb 9.7 30.4 59.9 23.7 3.7 1.5 2.8 31.7 4.7
Profile 206: T’ora geosol, relic occurrence; Parent material: Tephra over Tephra over Saprolite; Bedrock: Rift floor Ignimbrite; Landform: wide,
gentle sloping local graben; Landform element: very gentle transversal ridge in graben bottom.
A (0–15): weak, coarse platy structure; 10YR 3/1 moist, 10YR 4/2 dry; dry, hard; clay loam; diffuse boundary.
AC (15–40): weak, fine, subangular blocky structure; 10YR 2/3 moist; dry, slightly hard; clay loam; frequent medium spherical hard iron and
manganese nodules; diffuse boundary.
C (40–55): structureless porous; 10YR 4/1 moist, 10YR 6/2 dry; dry, soft; silty loam; very frequent soft iron and manganese nodules of all sizes and
shapes; abrupt, wavy boundary.
2Btb (55–65): weak, medium prismatic structure; 10YR 4/1 moist, 10YR 6/2 dry; dry, very hard; clay loam; broken clay coatings, 10YR 3/1, frequent,
medium to large soft iron and manganese nodules of various shapes; clear wavy boundary.
3Btssb (65–75): strong, medium, prismatic structure; 10YR 3/2 crushed and smoothed; moist, friable; continuous clay coatings, 10YR 2/1; inter-
secting slickensides; clear, wavy boundary.
3BCb (75–110þ): weak, fine subangular blocky structure; 10YR 3/3 crushed and smoothed; moist, friable; broken clay coatings, 10YR 2/1, patchy
calcium carbonate pseudomycelia, of biological origin; no HCl reaction in groundmass.
Petrocalcic horizon outcrops regularly in surroundings, could not be reached by hand digging.
Analytical data; methods according to Van Reeuwijk (1987), cations extracted by Ag-TU method.
262 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269
Soils developed on the tephras are much more vari-
able, in relation to the significantly different degree of
pedogenesis on the two tephra layers. Charcoal within
the lower tephra yielded an AMS 14 C age of 5780 y BP.
This older tephra is strongly pedogenized, with clay il-
luviation horizons and a partially hardened horizon at
its base. This horizon is weakly silica-cemented, with
amorphous silica coatings, but its coarse prismatic
structure and mechanical properties are more akin to a
fragipan. The lower tephra is poorly preserved in relic
exposures and was only positively identified in buried
ones.
The upper tephra, yet undated, appears to have un-
dergone a lesser degree of pedogenesis. The C horizon,
notable for its pale dry colour, is structureless with weak
amorphous silica cementation, and often contains large
iron–manganese concretions. The general weathering
trends in both tephra are anyway similar to those in the
older soil. Smectite is still the dominant weathering
product, but in much less amount; clay content is limited
to about 45% maximum, vs. 65–70% in the older soil.
This pedocomplex, clearly identified by the tephra
additions and Petrocalcic horizon, is quite widespread in
the area (Fig. 11). Furthermore, it can be easily rec-
ognised even in the poorest exposures, by the whitish
and weakly cemented C horizon of the upper tephra and
the hard petrocalcic horizon. These characteristics sug-
gest its use as a pedostratigraphic unit, a Geosol
(Morrison, 1977). These pedocomplexes are then infor-
mally defined as the TÕora geosol.
Other Luvisols, lacking recognizable tephra cover
and petrocalcic horizon, are present. They are deep, with
good horizon development and a thick A horizon. They
are found on synthem 3 slope deposits, either directly
overlying buried TÕora geosol outcrops or separated
from it by the S3 erosional surface.
Younger and less developed soils show a marked di-
vergence between the MER bottom and the TÕora-Mito
hills. On Lake Ziway terraces I–IV, and on the southern
basin palaeoshorelines, soils are very weakly developed.
Dominated by the, mostly fresh, glassy component and
by organic matter accumulation, they qualify as Vitric
Phaeozems. In the TÕora-Mito region, instead, soils on
younger surfaces show development of Cambic horizons,
and sometimes weakly expressed Luvisol characters.
Weakly developed Luvisols are found in the Abay-
GolelÕsha depression, on terraced alluvium at whose base
a date of 950 14 C y BP was recorded (Iasio, 1997).
6. The Ziway–Shala basin depositional and environmental
evolution: a discussion
The sedimentary deposits accumulated in the area
during approximately the last 100,000 years record a
complex succession of climatic and environmental
changes in East Africa (Gasse and Street, 1978; Lezine
and Casanova, 1991; Cohen et al., 1997). At least two
major periods of lake expansion are documented by
morphologic and stratigraphic evidence. Such periods,
referred to in this study as the Megalake and the Mac-
rolake phases, are respectively recorded by late Pleisto-
cene (i.e. Synthem 1) and early-mid Holocene (i.e.
Synthem 3) sediments. Within these two synthems, the
lower rank unconformity-bounded units record minor
lake level oscillations (Gasse and Street, 1978; Street,
1979; Gillespie et al., 1983; Alessio et al., 1996). Two
main phases of lake shrinking are documented by col-
luvial, fluvial, lacustrine and volcaniclastic deposits re-
ferred to the terminal Pleistocene Reduced Lakes (i.e.
Synthem 2) and to the late Holocene Separated Lakes
(i.e. Synthem 4) phases. These fluctuations were mainly
forced by climatic change and modulated by volcano–
tectonic events, resulting in variation in the type and
rate of depositional and erosional processes.
6.1. The Megalake, and the reduced lakes phases
Synthem 1, deposited during the Megalake phase,
outlines the following history:
(1) Development of a wide lacustrine system; this is
recorded by A1a deposits, formed in a deep, freshwater
and stratified lake, possibly characterized by seasonal
diatom blooms. Possibly coeval deposits are B1a in the
Bulbula Plain. This lacustrine stage, also including B1b
and G1a deposits, reflects StreetÕs Ziway–Shala I phase,
dating back to Late Pleistocene (from about 100,000 at
least up to 39,000 y BP). During this long lacustrine
stage, several possible lake fluctuations occurred, as
documented by erosional contacts among the sub-units
in Synthem 1 and by data from Le Turdu et al. (1999),
pointing to a major regression centred at about 69,000 y
B.P.
(2) Development, around 27,000 y B.P., of a second
lacustrine system (Le Turdu et al., 1999), recorded by
A1b and A1c deposits in east Shala and by G1b and G1c
deposits of the Gademota area. This stage, corre-
sponding to Ziway–Shala II phase (Street, 1979), was
characterized by a fluctuating lake, shallower with re-
spect to the previous stage.
(3) The last pre-LGM lacustrine stage, corresponding
to StreetÕs (1979) Ziway–Shala III lacustrine phase and
recorded in the Bulbula Plain by B1c deposits, between
27,000 y and 22,000 y BP.
The Reduced Lakes phase, determining the formation
of Synthem 2, indicates abrupt environmental transi-
tion, coinciding with major climatic changes and re-
newed volcanic activity within the rift. The B2 unit of
Bulbula Plain (Abernosa Pumice Member of Street,
1979) and possibly the G2b one in the Gademota area,
indicate strong volcanic activity, mainly concentrated on
the Alutu Volcano, which could have had a phase of
 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269
explosive activity approximately 21,000 y BP (Street,
1979). This is a period of global climate deterioration,
culminating about 18,000 y BP with the LGM and
causing, at tropical latitudes, an abrupt shift to arid
climates (e.g. Coetzee and van Zinderen Bakker, 1989).
Depositional settings appear to have been mainly sub-
aerial; erosion was probably widespread in the northern
and central part of the basin. Arid conditions, forcing an
almost complete desiccation of some lakes (eg. Ziway
and Abiyata), are in fact documented during this time
(Lloyd, 1977; Le Turdu et al., 1999).
The Pleistocene Ziway–Shala lakesÕ system reached
one of the highest levels, (above 1700 m), probably after
20,000 y BP, as recorded by G2c deposits in the Gade-
mota area. This transgression possibly coincided with
Ziway–Shala IV, one of the less documented among the
lacustrine phases proposed by Street (1979). During the
following regression, a cut-and-fill depositional cycle
produced G2d deposits, topping the Upper Pleistocene
succession in the Gademota area.
6.2. The transition from the megalake to the macrolake
basin: only a matter of climate change?
The Late Quaternary environmental changes in the
Ziway–Shala basin were referred to global climate
change, expressed in the tropics by changes in tempera-
ture and moisture distribution across glacial- and inter-
glacial-like phases (Street, 1979; Street-Perrot and Perrot,
1990; Gasse and Van Campo, 1994). The magnitude of
change during the LGM-Holocene transition (Dansg-
aard et al., 1993) seems to have been globally greater
than those marking the stadial–interstadial transitions
occurred before the LGM. In the tropics, this reflected in
a larger water budget, at the onset of Holocene, than at
the start of any previous interstadial (Thomas and
Thorp, 1995). Nevertheless, maximum extension of the
Holocene Macrolake system, controlled by an overflow
threshold at 1670 m, was significantly reduced with re-
spect to the Late Pleistocene Megalake system. This last
regularly rose above 1670 m during interstadials, as
documented in the Gademota area by units G1a, G1b,
G1c and G2c. The Holocene overflow threshold, the
Meki–Dubeta col, is controlled by a WNW-ESE trending
rift floor undulation, similar to many others visible
southwards (Fig. 1); it possibly reflects tectonic structures
(see below) transversal to the main rift fault systems. In
addition, the NE-SW trending Abosa Fault (West Ziway
Fault in Le Turdu et al., 1999, Fig. 2), locally marking
the boundary between Megalake and Macrolake depos-
its, could have determined a greater subsidence in the
northern portion of the Ziway–Shala lakes area during
the onset of the Macrolake phase.
It is here suggested that both the transversal rift floor
undulations and the Abosa fault can be consistent with a
sinistral oblique extension model, hypothesized for the
263
Quaternary MER evolution (Boccaletti et al., 1992;
Bonini et al., 1997). The Abosa Fault is, in fact, syn-
thetic/antithetic, respectively, to the SDZFZ and to the
WFB, reflecting a tensional stress field concordant with
the one, responsible for generating the MER master
fault systems and for the middle–late Pleistocene high
subsidence of the Lake Abiyata basin (Le Turdu et al.,
1999). The transverse undulations could represent
transfer or accommodation structures of the oblique
rifting as they are, in fact, parallel to the main transverse
faults segmenting the MER (i.e. the Munesa fault, Le
Turdu et al., 1999, Fig. 1). These structures, therefore,
could express faulted blocks, downthrowing the south-
ward sides and accommodating oblique rifting, succes-
sively mantled by volcaniclastic deposits and giving rise
to apparently gentle rift floor undulations. Alternatively,
they could represent more complex structures, not ex-
cluding high-amplitude folds of the rift floor, as those
described in the transfer zones of other grabens or half
grabens within the East African Rift System (Rosendahl
et al., 1986), and possibly associated with local trans-
pression generated by oblique rifting (Bonini et al.,
1997). Furthermore, the overall extension of the Late
Pleistocene Megalake, from Mojo town to the north to
Lake Shala to the south (Merla et al., 1979), implies that
its level was regulated by a northernmost threshold,
located somewhere in the modern Awash valley. This
could have been eliminated by the further opening and
southward penetration of the Afar tectonic depression,
so making the Meki–Dubeta threshold effective in reg-
ulating the Ziway–Shala lake levels during Holocene.
6.3. The macrolake phase
Starting approximately 10,000 y BP, renewed moist
conditions reestablished high lake levels, regulated by
the Meki–Dubeta col and punctuated by dramatic re-
gressions related to arid pulses. The most significant
Holocene palaeogeographic conditions, forced by lake
fluctuations, are summarized in Fig. 13.
Apart from tectonic control on basin geometry, early
Holocene moist climate was undoubtedly the main fac-
tor for the development of the macrolake basin. To-
gether with its palaeolimnological implication, the Late
Pleistocene–Holocene transition had heavy conse-
quences on erosional processes.
Landscape dynamics in East Africa during the LGM-
Holocene transition (Roberts and Barker, 1993), sug-
gests that sediment yield of lacustrine basins reached its
maximum at the beginning of the early Holocene cli-
matic optimum. In this period, lagging vegetation re-
covery with respect to rainfall increase could have
induced significant run-off peaks, also matched by doc-
umented peaks in sediment yield of major river basins
(Thomas and Thorp, 1995). The data on sediment yield
in the Lake Abiyata (Roberts and Barker, 1993) fit quite
264 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269

Fig. 13. Paleogeography of the Ziway–Shala lakes during the Holocene: (a) maximum lacustrine flooding during early-mid Holocene; (b) pro-
toZiway lake separated from the southern lake at about 5300 y BP during the development of terrace III and of the older paleoshorelines;
(c) protoZiway lake separated from the southern lake at about 2500–2000 y BP.

well this model. High-relief incisions like surface S3,
observed in the Gademota and Bulbula areas, testify
flushing of huge volumes of late Pleistocene deposits
into the lake basins, as local sediment yield, during the
onset of the climatic optimum.
The Macrolake phase is not only expressed by ero-
sional and depositional processes, but also by soil de-
velopment. The TÕora geosol appears to have formed in
climatic conditions moister than present: it clearly bears
the mark of major chemical weathering, converting a
bulk of mostly glassy materials into phyllosilicate clay.
This is just the kind of weathering that, as first observed
by Verheye (1978), is totally absent in the soils of the rift
bottom, starting from those on Lake Ziway terrace IV,
 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269
possibly up to 5000 14 C y old. Such strong divergence is
best explained by the well documented drying up of the
Lake Region climate after mid-Holocene.
On the Gademota slopes (Fig. 4), the TÕora geosol
developed on Synthem 2 deposits (unit G2d), suggest-
ing age not older than Holocene. An Holocene age
hypothesis is also supported by its presence on Lake
Ziway terrace V (Verheye, 1978, this study). According
to the stratigraphic results presented here, flooding of
this terrace at the end of Pleistocene is almost certain.
On the slopes of the inactive channel leading to the
Meki–Dubeta col, the TÕora geosol mantles the very
gentle nose-and-hollow topography of the upper slopes
of the valley, above 1670 m asl; below this altitude it
consistently disappears. Its absence on Lake Ziway
terrace IV also indicates that it cannot have formed
after about 5000 14 C y BP. Taking into consideration
the only absolute dating available, it appears sensible to
consider that the lower solum and the older tephra
solum of the TÕora geosol formed throughout lower
Holocene, the moistest climatic phase known in the
area.
The TÕora geosol then indicates that the early Ho-
locene moist intervals were accompanied by geomor-
phic stability and soil formation. Its homogeneity
across the area suggests a less pronounced climatic
gradient, between the Rift bottom and the TÕora-Mito
hills, than the present one; the very limited variability
of the lower solum, across rough hilly terrain, suggests
a gentler landscape with respect to the present rolling
one.
The early-mid Holocene evolution of the Ziway–
Shala lake system, recorded by Synthem 3, was quite
complex (Gasse and Street, 1978; Street, 1979; Gillespie
et al., 1983; Alessio et al., 1996). The new data for Lake
Shala, compared with previous chronologies (Grove
et al., 1975; Street, 1979; Gillespie et al., 1983), suggest
the following evolution (Fig. 5b):
(1) high to recessional levels between 10,000–9000 y BP,
with two low stands centred at about 9,900 and
9,000 y BP (Ziway–Shala Va, Fig. 5b);
(2) possible lake rise at 8000 y BP (Ziway–Shala Vb);
(3) new low stand at 7500 y BP;
(4) lake rise around 6300–6200 y BP, with possible max-
imum about 5000 y BP (Ziway–Shala VI);
(5) last level rise about 2500–2600 y BP (Ziway–Shala
VII).
Paleoecological analysis of the ostracod assemblages
sampled in A3a–A3g deposits (Balemwald, 1998) inde-
pendently supports the reconstruction in Fig 5b. Fresh
to oligohaline water assemblages are found in deposits
recording high-stands, while mesohaline assemblages,
dominated by salt-tolerant species, are characteristic of
low-stand deposits (Fig. 14). This record is interpreted
265
as a proxy of Holocene climatically induced lake fluc-
tuations, causing water dilution during high stands and
increased salinity during low ones.
Holocene century-scale climatic fluctuations, recog-
nized worldwide in the tropics and well evidenced by the
proxy records of the Lake Region, opened a debate on
the possible forcing factor(s), resulting in two main
alternative hypotheses. The first one is based on the
global relation between Atlantic Ocean–atmosphere in-
teractions and the on/off switching of the monsoonal
circulation in the tropics (Street-Perrott and Perrott,
1990; Lamb et al., 1995). The second one surmises
that dry-humid fluctuations are controlled by feedback
mechanisms, through changes in tropical land surface
conditions (Gasse and Van Campo, 1994), with signifi-
cant consequences for global climate.
A second striking feature of Holocene climate is the
less pronounced variability at high latitudes, as com-
pared with the highly fluctuating conditions recorded in
the tropics. The recent chronological correlation, be-
tween continental proxy records from different lati-
tudes, points to an abrupt climatic transition centred on
8200 y BP cal 14 C age, (conventional 14 C age of 7500
y BP, Stager and Mayewski, 1997), suggesting that at
least one short-lived Holocene climatic event has global
implication. This event is well documented in the Zi-
way–Shala lakes basin, by the regression separating
Ziway–Shala phases V and VI, which testifies low lake
levels similar to the present-day situation. Such low
levels are likely due to a decay of monsoon moisture
transport, possibly related to global colder and drier
conditions.
6.4. The separated lakes phase
The late Holocene environmental changes are re-
corded within Synthem 4. Between 5000 and 3000 y BP,
the reduction of lake levels marked an important
change in the evolution of the basin. A new rising of
the lakes around 2500–2000 y BP (phase Zw–Sh VII of
Street, 1979, see also core and seismic data in Bonnefille
et al., 1986 and Le Turdu et al., 1999 respectively for
the Abiyata and Langano lakes) established their
boundaries as similar to the present ones, with Lake
Ziway definitively separated from the southern ones.
These last remained united until the beginning of the
recessional trend, outlined by the belt of fresh shore-
lines around Lake Abiyata, below 1600 m. The de-
clining trend of the last two thousand years was
marked by a stillstand (phase Zw–Sh VIII of Street,
1979), testified by A4b deposits in the Ajewa embay-
ment; this could be placed, basing on data from a
shallow core in Lake Abiyata (Bonnefille et al., 1986),
at about 1500 y BP.
During the separated lakes phase, trends in soil de-
velopment, up to then homogeneous throughout the
266 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269

Fig. 14. Variation of salinity of the early-mid Holocene Lake Shala recorded by ostracod assemblages. The numbers in the stratigraphic logs and in
the curve of ostracod assemblage variation refer to samples. The question marks indicate a tentative chronological calibration for samples lacking
adequate 14 C dating. The difference in position among the logged sections outlines not-to-scale difference in elevation among the sub-units (the Lake
Shala 1972Õs level of about 1558 m a.s.l is the reference datum).

basin, diverged markedly. In the Rift bottom, soil de-
velopment on Lake Ziway terraces IV–I is fairly weak,
and weakly differentiated between the terraces them-
selves. Considering the known age of terrace IV, about
5100 14 C y BP, this is rather significant, implying quite
unfavourable conditions for soil formation. In the
TÕora-Mito hills, soil development during the Separated
lakes phase was clearly stronger. This post-5 ky diver-
gence could be indicative of an accentuated climatic
gradient between the Rift floor and the margins, evolv-
ing towards the present situation.
In non-lacustrine areas, such as the Gademota Ridge,
the last 5 ky are recorded by repeated fluvial incision
and colluvial and alluvial deposition (units G4a and
G4b). A prominent, very recent, phase of landscape
instability, represented by deep incisions in the slopes
and the development of a network of discontinuous
ephemeral streams, dates back to the last 4–3 centuries
(unit G4b).
6.5. The flooded paleovalley in the Ziway Lake: an
evidence of repeated desiccation
As an evidence of almost complete desiccation, the
flooded palaeovalley in Lake Ziway can be related to the
dry periods documented in Late Quaternary deposits.
Our and previous data confirm that conditions similar
to, or drier than, present ones established in this area (1)
between 20,000 and 13,000 y BP; (2) between 11,000 and
10,000 y,BP; (3) in the early-mid Holocene at about
9900, 9000, 7500 y BP and (4) in late Holocene, possibly
after around 5000–3000 y BP.
Each of these dry periods may have caused a drastic
shrinking of Lake Ziway, today only 7 m deep, down to
its complete desiccation. The definitive deactivation of
the valley, as a drainage element connecting the proto-
Bulbula and protoMeki rivers, could have been caused
by blockage by lava, pyroclastic flows and falls erupted
from the Alutu Volcano. This is indicated by the
 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269 267

absence of the palaeovalley on the southern part of
Lake Ziway, in correspondence of two small islands
made up of volcaniclastic material. Volcanic thresholds
are also present in the uppermost reaches of Bulbula
River.
7. Conclusions
The main results of this study concern the general
geology of the central part of the MER and the revision
of the Late Quaternary framework, making this Region
one of the reference sites for paleoclimate research in the
tropics. The general geology is illustrated by a new
geological map depicting basement, Mesozoic rocks
and Early Tertiary to Holocene volcanic and sedimen-
tary units. The map is mainly devoted to the Late
Quaternary deposits, as they record a complex story of
environmental change related to climatic and volcano–
tectonic events (Fig. 15).
The revision and reinterpretation of morphological,
stratigraphical and pedological evidence of Late Qua-
ternary environmental change in the Ziway–Shala basin
produced the following results:
(1) The stratigraphic, morphologic and pedological
record of lake fluctuations, supported by radiocarbon
dating, defines a coherent chrono-morpho-stratigraphic
framework of the main steps in environmental change in
the study area between late Pleistocene and Holocene.
This is represented by four unconformity-bounded
units, formed during late Pleistocene (last glacial, Syn-
them 1), latest Pleistocene (Synthem 2), early-mid Ho-
locene (Synthem 3) and late Holocene (Synthem 4).
(2) An extensive soil survey provided bases for a
better understanding of the geomorphic processes and
slope dynamics accompanying hydrological changes in
the lake basin. The TÕora geosol and other Luvisols
were recognized at a regional scale as indicators of
geomorphic stability under moister than present climate
conditions. The early-mid Holocene soils are clearly
separated, in terms of pedogenesis, from the late Ho-
locene soils. The latter reflect a climate significantly
drier than that dominating during the early-mid Ho-
locene.
(3) The integrated analysis confirmed the picture of
environmental change as mainly driven by climate
change. Late Quaternary tectonism and volcanism in the
MER modulated such a climatic control, by forcing
geometric changes in the basin and determining a sig-
nificant variation in its extension, from the late Pleis-
tocene Megalake system to the early-mid Holocene
Macrolake system.

Fig. 15. Synoptic scheme of the main environmental change in the Ziway–Shala basin during the Late Quaternary documented by morphological,
pedological and stratigraphical lines of evidence in response to climatic and volcano–tectonic events.
268 M. Benvenuti et al. / Journal of African Earth Sciences 35 (2002) 247–269
Acknowledgements
This study was funded by European Commission DG
XII, STD3 Project––Contract no. TS3-CT92-0076,
INCO-DC Project––Contract no. ERBIC18-CT97-
0139. People of the MER are gratefully acknowledged
for their hospitality and field assistance. Thanks are due
to P. Eriksson, M.J. Soreghan and a further anonymous
referee for their comments and suggestions, which im-
proved the early version of this paper.
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