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The concept of emotional intelligence has been at the forefront of recent sport
psychology research due to its vital role on athlete development and performance
(Vallerand & Blanchard 2000, Botterill & Brown 2002, Jones 2002 , & O͛Neal 2003). It can be
defined as a person͛s ability, skill or capacity to analyse and control their emotions, or in
respect of a leadership position to analyse and control the emotions of those withi n the
group that they lead (Bradberry & Greaves 2009). Characteristically, athletes go through the
motions of their emotional experiences without taking the time to critically reflect on them
(Botterill & Brown 2002). This process is comparable to the cons truct of emotional
intelligence due to its properties in one͛s ability to perceive and manage one͛s emotions
(Mayor & Salovey 1997); of which have been identified as pivotal in utilising maximal
sporting performance (Ravizza 1998, Lazarus 2000, & Jones 200 3).

In order to comprehend its role within sporting success it is important that the
associated models of emotional intelligence are understood. The models are invaluable to
those that work with athletes and teams as they underpin the methodology as to ho w
emotional intelligence can be recognised and developed in the sporting context. The
majority of emotional intelligence models contain one of the two main theoretical view
points; the mixed model or the ability model (Fletcher & Meyer 2007). The mixed abi lity
models comprise of the fusion of both mental abilities, such as self awareness and problem
solving, along with personality characteristics, such as genuineness and social warmth
(Sternberg et al. 2000). In contrast, the ability mod el informs that the experiences of
emotion can be used to direct cognition and stimulate behaviour; therefore it is seen that
emotional intelligence is a mental skill that can be developed with experience (Mayer 2001).

One of the main mixed models is one designed by Goleman, which depicted
emotional intelligence as the demonstration in particular competencies of self-awareness,
self-management, social awareness, and social skills, forming four main clusters that when
produced at the right time cause effective behaviour in a given situation (Bolyatzis, Goleman
& Rhee 2000). This has been expressed as twenty competencies across the four clusters. The
principles of Goleman͛s model are practically applied using a self-assessment questionnaire
and although it is not formed in a sporting context its principles can be applied to sport.
Although the model does provide those in the field of business, or indeed sport, to be able
to reflect on their emotional intelligence more significantly, it has come under great
criticism. This is partly due to its deficiency of scientific theory as a result of its lack of
specificity in terms of the competencies (Matthews, Roberts & Zeidner 2004) bu t mainly due
to its lack of independent peer reviewed research, causing a lapse in the validity and
reliability of the model (Van Rooy & Viswes varan 2004, Matthews et al. 2004, & Conte
2005). Nevertheless, the model and the questionnaire is used by individ uals within fields of
business and sport that believe it holds adequate predictability and is useful for their
workforce, or team, to analyse their emotional intelligence and identify areas in which they
could develop.
 A model with similar properties to that of Goleman͛s is Bar-On͛s mixed model
approach (1997). It contains analogous competencies with Goleman͛s model, however Bar -
On͛s model comprises of a range of state and trait competencies that derive one͛ s success,
of which come from five sub-categories; intrapersonal, interpersonal, adaptability, str ess
management and general mood. It is also in the form of a questionnaire and uses the
Emotional Quotient Inventory (Bar-On 1997). As opposed to Goleman͛s model, it has an
acceptable level of reliability and validity (Van Rooy & Viswesvaran 2004) lending it more
weight as a plausible theory of emotional intellige nce and its measured components.
However, many of the attributes link in heavily with that of personality qualities which are
believed to be traits that cannot be developed (Matthews et al. 2004) and due to this it is
not as relevant in a sporting context (Fletcher & Meyer 2007).

Schutte͛s conceptualisation is a more contemporary mixed model of emotional

intelligence; it lies within the mixed model due to the constant reference to emotional
intelligence as a trait (Schutte et al. 1998). The model is in the form of an inventory known
as the Emotional Intelligence Inventory which aims to assess how a person can identify,
understand, action and regulate emotions within themselves and their impact on others. In
analysis by Van Rooy and Viswesvaran (2004) it has been proved a more valid and reliable in
comparison to both Goleman͛s and Bar -On͛s mixed models and therefore is furthermore
scientifically valid. However, the way in which the results from the inventory are analysed is
under dispute (Bracket & Mayer 2003) and also its nature of self report brings it under
scrutiny due to its properties of bias in terms of social desirability (Austin, Saklofske, Hu ang
& McKenny 2004). In similarity with the two other mixed models of emotional intelligence it
is strongly based around personality traits, thus opposing the notion that emotional
intelligence is displayed as a set of developmental emotional skills. The d evelopment of
these skills is one which is most appropriate to sports behaviour, consequently identifying
that consideration of an ability model approach is more relative to sport as opposed to
mixed model approach (Fletcher & Meyer 2007).

The ability model approach involves the concept of emotional intelligence being a
strict set of states that can be developed; the major research in this field lies with Mayer
and Salovey͛s ability model (1997). To elucidate, Salovey and Mayer (1990) depict ed
emotional intelligence as a set of skills that contribute to the judgment and expression of
emotions within one͛s self and in others, using feeling to motivate and achieve, in addition
to successful regulation of emotions in one͛s self and in others. Th ese beliefs underpin the
theoretical basis of Mayer and Salovey͛s ability model (1997) which encompasses four skill
sets in the form of branches; the ability to identify and express physical states, feelings and
thoughts (1), the ability to use emotions to think in productive ways (2), the ability to
understand and analyse emotion (3) and the ability to effectively regulate emotions to
enhance emotional and intellectual growth (4). Using these four skills sets, the Multi -Factor
Emotional Scale was produced as an assessment (Mayer, Caruso & Salovey 1999).

This assessment provided a vast amount of feedback in correlation to the four

branches, however it also provided a lack of reliability (Roberts, Zeidner & Matthews 2001,
Van Rooy & Viswesvaran 2004, Conte 2005), resulting in a further assessment being created
known as the Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, or MSCEIT (Mayer, Salovey
& Caruso 2002). The MSCEIT is a 141 -item scale designed to measure Salovey and Mayer͛s
four branches of skills sets, and has proved an assessment of more scientific grounding in
respect of its validity and reliability (Conte 2005). Emotional intelligence assessed in this way
provides an avenue in which it exists as a mental ability distinguishable from personality
variables and traits. Thus it focuses on a set of skills that can be mastered over time that are
incongruous with personality traits. In addition it is free from self report bias, leading it to be
more relative to a sporting context and should be the major base of emotional intelligence
theory and development in the sporting domain (Fletcher & Meyer 2007).

The practical application of emotional intelligence in sport is one which lies closely
with positive self talk training (Fletcher & Meyer 2007). However , empirical research in the
field of sport is lacking due to the inconsistency of the definition and assessment of
emotional intelligence, proving it difficult to advance the theoretical basis behind the
practical application (Mayer et al. 2003, Conte 2005 ). Nevertheless, study has been
conducted relating sports leaders hip and emotional intelligence and in particular altruistic
leadership, divergent to egoistic leadership. In a study by Miller (2003) fifteen high level
coaches identified all five of Goleman ͛s emotional intelligence factors as integral to
facilitating altruistic leadership. Though, in criticism, it promotes emotional intelligence as
trait revolved, contradicting the notion of developmental emotional intelligence skills and to
further criticise Miller͛s study it is based around Goleman͛s model and conclusion which are
unsupported by academic research (Salovey & Pizarro 2003, Matthews et al. 2004, Landy
2005, Fletcher & Meyer 2007 ). Further research into the relationship between emotional
intelligence and leadership was conducted by Magyar (2004) whom came to the conclusion
that coach education programs should include emotional intelligence material owing to its
valuable properties in developing children͛s perceptions of coaches by the use of exp ressing,
regulating and appraising others emotions. This resulted in a greater self worth amongst the
children which in turn improved their success (Magyar 2004).

The relationship between sports leadership and emotional intelligence is integral to

those within team sports. It correlates with both team cohesion and athlete satisfaction,
which equally add to the success of a team. It is a unique measure of team effectiveness
within the field of sports psychology and has a close association with organisational
citizenship behaviour (Aoyagi, Cox & McGuire 2008). Study into the field of performance
linked with emotional intelligence is minimal, although Zizzi et al. (2003) found that aspects
of emotional intelligence are present within baseball and in particular pitching performance.
Though yet again Zizzi͛s study relies heavily on an inventory that portrays emotional
intelligence as a trait, leading to a lack of ability to practically apply its theory to a sports
setting (Fletcher & Meyer 2007). Therefore it can be said that although much research has
been conducted showing that emotional intelligence is valuable to maximising performance
(Ravizza 1998, Lazarus 2000, Jones 2003, Zizzi et al. 2003, Magyar 2004, Van Rooy &
Viswesvaran 2004), there is a lack of scie ntific theory underpinning the practical application
of emotional intelligence development (Fletcher & Meyer 2007). The major hindrance to
this is a lack of a mutually accepted definition and model of emotional intelligence, of which
should be based around the concept of emotional intelligence being a state that is able to
develop over time (Conte 2005, Landy 2005). Once this has been established, the MSCEIT
can be used to develop a more sport specific assessment to gain more scientific theory
behind the practical application of emotional intelligence in a sporting context.
 In conclusion, the concept of emotional intelligence is a key component in optimising
sporting success. It can be theorised into two altering perceptions; the mixed model
approach which relates to both trait and state elements, or the ability model approach
which concentrates solely on the notion of emotional intelligence being a state that can be
developed over time. In a sporting context, the later is more valid as it is the development al
side that interests coaches and sport psychologists in the belief that emotional intelligence
training can be facilitated. However, the majority of current research in sports leadership
and performance are theoretically based around the associated mixed ability models as
opposed to the more appropriate ability model. In order to aid the practical application of
sporting emotional intelligence research needs to be conducted that is underpinned by the
ability model approach. This will facilitate academic s tudy and allow the adequate testing of
the affect emotional intelligence has on performance outcomes. Ultimately, this will prove
its validity in sport psychology practice and will in turn focus effort on emotional intelligence
being amongst a mental skills set that can be developed, rather than a confusing and
irresolute concept which some may portray it to be currently.

V    

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