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vL NASA Washington, D. C.

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Space Shut
Space Shuttle
The Space Shuttle, heart of NASA's
new Space Transportation System,
markedly expands man's ability
to do things in space at lower cost,
more often, and more effectively
than ever before.
The Shutt
Man, in less than one average
lifetime, progressed from his
first powered flight of 37 meters
(120 feet) to a landing on the
Moon.
Orville and Wilbur Wright
achieved sustained flight with a
powered aircraft for 12 seconds
on December 17, 1903. A tele-
gram to their father was the
initial notification to the world
of this event.
Just 66 years later Neil Arm-
strong stepped onto the surface
of the Moon - - after a journey
of more than 370,140 kilometers
(230,000 miles) in less than four
days - - while about 500 million
people around the world watched
the event on television or listened
to it on radio.
Then, on April 12, 1981, a new
era in manned space flight began
as America's first reusable Space
Shuttle embarked on i t s maiden
voyage.
Manned by Astronauts John
Young, as commander, and
Robert Crippen, as pilot, the
Shuttle was launched from
Kennedy Space Center's Launch
Complex 39-A at 7 a.m. EST.
Astronauts Young and Crippen
circled the Earth 36 times per-
forming engineering tests to
validate all of Columbia's systems.
Fifty-four and one-half hours
after lifting off, and over 933,000
miles later, Columbia and i t s
crew made a spectacular landing
on a runway a t Dryden Flight
Research Center in California.
This landing culminated a 2%-day
mission described by Commander
Young as "a phenomenal mission
in a fantastic flying machine."
The Space Shuttle Era had
begun.
No longer will astronauts
"throw away" most of the trans-
portation system that carries
them on their missions. The
Apollo-Saturn V stood 111 m.
(363 ft.) t a l l on the launch pad.
Only the Apollo Command
Module - - 3 m. (10 ft.) high - -
returned to Earth, and even it
was never reused.
The Space Shuttle heralds an
era in which space crews will use
the same craft again and again.
Like the conventional Earth-
bound carriers of today, (trucks,
ships and planes) which move
The crew of the first Shuttle
Left: Robert Crippen
Right: John Young
freight and passengers routinely Saturn V Launch Vehicle

between cities and nations,

Shuttle will offei- these same
workhorse capabilities t o space - -
lifting satellites, payloads and
men and women t o do work .
not possible on Earth. With
Shuttle, spaceflight will no
longer be restricted t o relatively
young men in peak physical
condition who have thick log
books of pilot time in jet air-
craft. Now men and women in
average physical condition can
anticipate being selected as
crew members.
Space Shutt
The Space Shuttle is composed
of the Orbiter, an External Tank
that contains all the propellant
used by the Orbiter's three main
engines, and two Solid Rocket
Boosters. The Orbiter and
boosters are reusable; an Exter-
nal Tank is expended on each
launch.
A Space Shuttle mission be-
gins with installation of the mis-
sion payload into the Orbiter car-
go bay. The Orbiter is then mated
to an assembled set of boosters
and tank, and rolled out to the
launch pad. A t liftoff the Solid
Rocket Boosters and the Orbiter
main engines fire together. The
two Solid Rocket Boosters are
jettisoned after burnout - - about
2 minutes and 12 seconds into
the flight and 44 km. (27.5 mi.)
high - - and recovered by means
of a parachute system. (The
Mission
boosters can then be refurbished,
refilled with propellants and
made ready for another Shuttle
flight.) The Orbiter main engines
continue to burn until the vehicle
is just short of orbital velocity, a t
which time the engines are shut
down and the External Tank
jettisoned. During i t s plunge
through the atmosphere, the
tank breaks up and falls into a
predetermined ocean area - - the
l ndian Ocean for launches from
Kennedy Space Center in Florida
and the Pacific Ocean for launches
from Vandenberg Air Force Base
in California.
The Shuttle's small orbital
maneuvering system engines are
then used to attain the desired
orbit and to make any subse-
quent maneuvers that may be
needed during the mission. The
crew begins their payload opera-
tions on orbit by performing a Orbiter levels into horizontal
multitude of assigned tasks, de- flight a t low altitude for an un-
pending upon the purpose of the powered aircraft-type approach
mission. On some missions they and landing a t a speed of about
miaht
" -
be settinu out satellites in 335 km. (208 mi.) ~ e hour.r
orbit, or retrieving satellites for The primary shuttle landing
return t o Earth. Or they might facilities are at Kennedy and are
be servicing orbiting satellites, planned at Vandenberg, with
conducting experiments in space several alternate landing sites
that cannot be duplicated on available for contingencies, includ-
Earth, or studying the Earth and ing Edwards AFB, Calif., used for
deep space from their unique Orbital Flight Test Series landings.
vantaue - .~ o i nhiuh
t - above the After landing, the Orbiter is to
atmosphere.
After orbital operations are
completed, normally about seven
days, deorbiting maneuvers are
initiated. The Orbiter begins t o
reenter the Earth's atmosphere
at a nose-high angle of attack.
During reentry, portions of the
Orbiter exterior reach tempera-
tures up t o 1,260 degrees Celsius
(2,300 degrees Fahrenheit). The
 Orbiter Enterprise arrives at the Marshall
Center for ground vibration testing

Orbiter
The Orbiter is the plane-like tical properties that reflect the accommodations. The Orbiter
element that carries the crew solar radiation. carries a crew of two pilots, one
and the payloads for the Space On the bottom of the Orbiter or more mission specialist astro-
Shuttle. About the size of a and on the leading edge of the nauts and as many as four addi-
commercial DC-9 jet airliner, tail, a high temperature reusable tional payload and technical
the Orbiter can deliver to orbit surface insulation, made of coated personnel occupying a two-level
single or multiunit payloads up silica tiles, is used to protect the cabin within the crew module a t
to 29,484 kilograms (65,000 aluminum structure up to 1,260 the forward end of the vehicle.
pounds) in i t s huge 4.5 by 18 m. degrees C (2,300 degrees F). The The maximum crew is seven. The
(15 by 60 ft.) cargo bay. I t can high temperature coating gives a cabin, a combination living, work-
bring back payloads weighing glossy black appearance. ing, and storage area, is pressurized
up to 14,515 kg. (32,000 Ibs). A reinforced carbon-carbon with a nitrogenloxygen mixture
The Orbiter's main structural material is used for the nose cap to an atmospheric pressure of
elements are constructed pri- and the wing leading edges where 10.1 Newtons per square centi-
marily of aluminum. They are the temperatures will exceed meter (14.7 pounds per square
the forward fuselage, which 1,260 degrees C (2,300 degrees F) inch) to simulate sea level condi-
contains the crew module; the during reentry. tions. (Prior U.S. manned space
mid fuselage, which includes the An important feature of the flight used an atmosphere at a pres-
payload bay doors; the aft fuse- Orbiter is the crew and passenger sure of 3.45 Nlsq. cm. (5.00 p.s.i.).
lage, including the engine thrust
structure; the wing; and the
vertical tail.
The Orbiter's exterior is
covered with thermal protective
materials to protect the space-
craft from solar radiation and
the extreme heat of atmospheric
reentry.
Two types of reusable surface
insulation, coated silica tiles and
coated flexible sheets, cover the
top and sides of the Orbiter. The
tiles protect the Orbiter surfaces
up to 649 degrees C (1,200 de-
grees F), and the flexible insula-
tion protects the Orbiter up to
371 degrees C (700 degrees F).
The coating on both types of
insulation gives the Orbiter a
nearly white color and has op-

FORWARD REACTION
CONTROL SYSTEM
MODULE
NOSE LANDING GEAR --1 SIDE HATCH
The upper section, or the flight
deck, contains the controls and
displays used to pilot, monitor
and control orbital maneuvering,
atmospheric reentry and landing
phases of the mission and to con-
trol the mission payloads. The
commander and pilot are seated
on this deck in the usual pilot/
copilot arrangement with dupli-
cate controls that permit the
Orbiter to be piloted from either
seat and returned to Earth by
one crew member in an emer-
gency. Two others may be
seated behind them on this deck.
Seating for three passengers or
scientists, and the habitability
provisions are on the lower level
or deck. The habitability pro-
visions include a galley for food
preparation (an oven and hot
and cold water dispensers for
the preparation of rehydratable
freeze-dried foods), an eating
area, personal hygiene facilities
for either male or female crew
members/passengers, and sleep-
ing accommodations.
For a rescue mission, the lower
deck can be configured to provide
still three more seats by replacing
the sleeping provisions with seat-
ing. Also to support a rescue mis-
sion, all Shuttle flights will carry
extravehicular activity (EVA)
provisions for two EVA-trained
crewmen.
EVAs are planned on missions
where access to the cargo bay and
RUDDER1
SPEED BRAKE
AFT REACTION
CONTROL
SYSTEM
MAIN ENGBNES
BODY FLAP
ELEVONS
MAIN LANDING GEAR
the pay loads is necessary. The
astronauts or payload specialists
will exit the Orbiter through an
airlock and hatch in the lower
deck. It is also through this hatch
that the scientists for the Space-
lab missions will enter the pres-
surized Spacelab module carried
in the Shuttle payload bay.
Beneath the lower deck is
environmental control equipment
which is readily accessible through
removable floor panels. The en-
vironmental control system sup-
plies the flight crew and passengers
with a comfortable and safe en-
vironment, maintaining the proper
atmospheric pressure, humidity,
carbon dioxide level and tempera-
tures, and removing odors from the
cabin area.
Electrical power for the Space
Shuttle and i t s payloads is genera-
ted by three fuel cells that use
cryogenically-stored hydrogen
and oxygen. The fuel cells are
in the forward end of the Orbiter
midfuselage. During peak and
average power conditions, all
three fuel cells are used; during
minimum power conditions,
only two fuel cells are used.
The quantities of fuel (hydro-
gen and oxygen) normally carried
by the Orbiter will be enough to
generate about 1,530 kilowatt
hours of energy. The amount
includes 50 k.w.h. of energy
required by a typical payload
for a seven-day mission. I f
additional power is needed,
separate fuel kits may be carried
aboard, each kit supplying
enough fuel for an additional
840 k.w.h. of energy.
A byproduct of the chemical
conversion of hydrogen and oxy-
gen to obtain electrical energy is
the production of water. All the
water for human consumption
aboard the Shuttle is supplied
from the byproducts of the fuel
cells.
The broad spectrum of Shuttle
missions requires the Orbiter to
accommodate many different
payloads. Numerous points
along the sides and bottom of
the cargo bay provide the places
for payload attachment. Nearly
all of the Orbiter systems are
also involved to some degree in
accommodating the variety of
satellites and payloads that will
be carried. Also available for
use on selected missions are de-
vices to manipulate payloads in
and out of the Orbiter bay, kits
to supply additional power
needed by a particular payload,
and kits to provide additional
crew-related equipment and
consumables. This flexibility
gives the Orbiter the capability to
carry virtually all of the U.S.
planned payloads of the 1980s.
The Orbiter's communication
antennas, about 20 of them, are
flush mounted on the forward
fuselage. Throughout the mis-
sion the Orbiter will provide
direct voice, command, tele-
metry, and television commu-
nications with the ground
crew, crewmen on EVA, and
with detached payloads through
its communications system and
a network of ground stations
and communications satellites.
Three main propulsion rocket
engines used during launch are in
the aft fuselage. Two orbital
maneuvering rockets in external
pods on the aft fuselage provide
thrust for orbit insertion, orbit
changes, rendezvous, and return
to Earth. Reaction control
thrusters in the two orbital
maneuvering system pods and
in a module in the nose section
of the forward fuselage provide
attitude control in space and
precision velocity changes for
the final phases of rendezvous
and docking, or orbit modifica-
tion. The reaction control
thrusters, in conjunction with
the Orbiter's aerodynamic
control surfaces, also provide
attitude control of the Orbiter
during reentry. The reaction
control system controls the
Orbiter a t high altitude and ve-
locity, and the aerodynamic con-
trol surfaces provide control of
the Orbiter a t speeds less than
Mach 2.
The Orbiter is equipped with
an automatic landing system. It
will land a t speeds of about 335
kph (208 mph), faster than most
aircraft.
The development of the Orbiter
is the responsibility of the John-
son Space Center. Rockwell
International Space Division is
performing the design, develop-
ment, and test of the Orbiter
and its integration with other
elements of the Shuttle. Sub-
contractors to Rockwell are
manufacturingsome of the
major Orbiter subassemblies with
final assembly being performed
a t Rockwell's Palmdale, Calif.
facilities. Each completed Orbiter
is transported, in its operational
configuration, from its final
assembly site to either the
Kennedy Space Center or Van-
denberg Air Force Base launch
sites, atop a modified Boeing
747 airplane. This same mode of
transportation can be used to
transfer Orbiters between launch
sites and to retrieve an Orbiter
that has landed a t an auxiliary
landing field.

Space Shutt e Main Engine
The Space Shuttle Main En-
gine, which powers the Space
Shuttle, along with two Solid
Rocket Boosters, is the most
advanced liquid-fueled rocket
engine ever built. It features
variable thrust permitting
the engine thrust to be tailored
to mission needs, and can oper-
ate effectively a t both high and
low altitudes. It has the highest
thrust for i t s weight of any en-
gine yet developed and can oper-
ate up to 7.5 hours of accumu-
lated firing time before major
maintenance or overhaul. The
Main Engine is reusable for up
to 55 separate Shuttle missions.
Three main engines are
mounted on the Orbiter aft fuse-
lage in a triangular pattern. The
engines are so designed and
mounted that they can be gim-
balled or pointed directionally
during flight. Thus, in conjunc-
tion with the two Solid Rocket
Boosters, they are used to steer
the Shuttle as well as boost it
into orbit.
Propellants for the engines,
liquid hydrogen and liquid oxy-
gen, are carried in the large Ex-
ternal Tank, the largest element
of the Space Shuttle. Propellants
can be supplied to the engines a t
a rate of about 17 1,396 liters
(45,283 gallons) per minute of
hydrogen and about 63,588 liters
(16,800 gal.) per minute of
oxygen.
Main Propulsion System
testing at NSTL
Many unique and innovative
features have been designed into
the engine to satisfy the perfor-
mance, life, reliability, and main-
tainability requirements of the
Shuttle. One of these features
includes the use of a staged com-
bustion power cycle coupled
with high combustion chamber
pressures. In the staged com-
bustion cycle, liquid hydrogen
is partially burned at high pres-
sure and relatively low tempera-
ture in preburners and then com-
pletely combusted at high tem-
perature and pressure in a main
combustion chamber before ex-
panding through the high-area-
ratio nozzle. The rapid mixing
of the propellants under these
conditions is so complete that a
combustion efficiency of about
99 percent is attained. The en-
gine also uses i t s super-cold hy-
drogen fuel to cool all combus-
tion devices in direct contact
with high-temperature combus-
tion products, such as the bell-
like engine nozzles, thereby
contributing to the long engine
life.
During engine operation or
testing, engineers frequently talk
in terms of three primary levels
of thrust or power - - minimum, Single engine testing
rated and full power. Engine
thrust, however, can be varied
throughout the range from
minimum to full power level de-
pending upon mission needs.
Most Shuttle flights will be
launched a t rated power level, or
100 percent of rated thrust, with
each engine developing 2,090,560
N. (470,000 Ibs,) of thrust a t al-
titude or 1,668,000 N. (375,000
Ibs.) a t sea level. On Shuttle
flights where heavy payloads
dictate an extra measure of
power, up to 109 percent of
rated thrust can be commanded.
This level is called "full power."
During the latter part of ascent,
engine thrust is reduced to en-
sure that an acceleration force
of no more than three times that
of Earth's gravity is reached.
This acceleration level, permitted
by the throtrleable Shuttle en-
gines, is about one-third the
acceleration experienced on pre-
vious manned space flight and is
well under the physical stress
limits of non-astronaut scientists
ing from the External Tank and
are secured in a fixed position by
Shuttle Orbiter structural mem-
bers. The discharge (output) of
each low pressure pump is con-
nected to the inlet of the corres-
ponding high pressure pump by
lines (ducts) that have flexible
joints to allow the deflection re-
quired during engine movement
for steering. The high pressure
pumps are also 180 degrees apart
and are mounted on the engine
between the low pressure pumps.
The preburners comprise the
first stage in the engine's staged-
combustion cycle. Here, all the
r GIMBAL BEARING
liquid hydrogen and part of the
liquid oxygen is burned at a
low mixture ratio to produce
hydrogen-rich steam that drives
the two high pressure turbopumps.
The main injector mixes and
distributes the propellants into
the main combustion chamber
where the high pressure com-
bustion takes place. The com-
bustion gases are then exhausted
through the 77.5: 1 area ratio
nozzle.
The structural backbone of
the engine is the hot-gas mani-
fold which supports the two
preburners, the high pressure
LOW-PRESSURE
FUEL DUCT --r

who will fly aboard the Shuttle. LOW.PRESSURE

FUEL TURBOPU
The lowest thrust throttle setting, HIGH-PRESSURE.
FUEL TURBOPUMP
the minumum power level, equals
65 percent of rated power.
Among the key components
of the engine are i t s four turbo-
pumps (two iow pressure and
two high pressure), two preburn-
ers, the main injector, the main
combustion chamber, the nozzle,
and the hot-gas manifold.
The low pressure fuel turbo-
pump and the low pressure oxi-
dizer turbopump, set 180 degrees
apart on the engine, are joined to
the Shuttle propellant lines com-
pumps, the main injector, the and control system simulation
pneumatic control assembly, and a t Marshall Center facilities; and
the main combustion chamber engine test firings for develop-
with the nozzle. ment and flight acceptance a t
Attached to the dome-injector, the National Space Technology
the gimbal bearing functions as Laboratories INSTL) near Bay
the thrust point between the St. Louis, Miss., and at Rocket-
engine and the Orbiter and dyne's Santa Susana facility in
permits the engine to be swivelled California.
for Shuttle steering. Each engine, prior to flight,
The Shuttle main engine is the is test fired on a NASA static
first rocket engine to use a built- test stand a t NSTL.
in electronic digital controller.
The controller accepts commands
from the Orbiter for engine start,
shutdown, and change in throttle
setting and also monitors engine
operation. In the event of a
failure the controller will take
action automatically to correct
the problem or shut down the
engine safely.
The development responsi-
bility for the engines is assigned
to the Marshall Space Flight Cen-
ter at Huntsville, Ala., with the
Rocketdyne Division of Rock-
well International in Canoga
Park, Calif., performing the de-
sign, production and test func-
tions. The electronic controller
is developed by Honeywell, Inc.,
of Minneapolis, Minn., as a sub-
contractor to Rocketdyne.
Testing of the engine and com-
ponents is conducted a t several
locations: component testing a t
the contractors' facilities; com-
bustion chamber life cycle and
augmented spark igniter testing

Solid Rocket Booster
Two Solid Rocket Boosters are
used for each Space Shuttle flight
to help provide the initial ascent
thrust to lift the Shuttle with its
payload from the launch pad to
an altitude of about 44 km. (27.5
mi.). Prior to launch, the entire
Shuttle weight is supported by
the two boosters.
The Solid Rocket Booster is
made up of six subsystems: the
solid rocket motor, structures,
thrust vector control, separation,
recovery and electrical and in-
strumentation subsystems. The
overall length of the Solid Rocket
Booster is 45.5 m. (149.1 ft.),
and the diameter i s 3.7 m. (12.2
ft.).
The heart of each booster is
the motor, the largest solid rocket
motor ever flown and the first
designed for reuse. It is made up
of 11 segments joined together
to make four loading segments
which are filled with propellant
at the manufacturer's site. The
segmented design permits ease
of fabrication, handling and
transportation. The segments
are shipped from the manu-
facturer's plant to the launch
sites by rail in specially built
canisters carried on flat rail cars.
There they are assembled to
make up a complete motor.
Propellant loading of the
motor segments is completed in
pairs from batches of propellant
ingredients to minimize any
Recovery of boosters at
thrust imbalances between boost-
ers used for a single Shuttle flight.
Propellant loading is also done in
such a manner using different in-
ternal propellant shapes, called
cores, so as to cause a regressive
thrust approximately 55 seconds
into the Shuttle flight to prevent
overstressing the Shuttle vehicle
during the critical phase of flight
called the period of maximum
dynamic pressure. This is referred
to as "Max 0." Each motor,
when assembled, contains about
503,600 kg. (1.1 million Ibs.) of
propellant and, a t launch, will
develop a thrust of 12.9 million N.
(2.9 million Ibs).
The exhaust nozzle in the aft
segment of each motor helps
steer the Shuttle during flight. It
can be moved up to 6.65 degrees
by the booster's hyd~aulically
operated thrust vector control
subsystem which is controlled by
the Orbiter's guidance and control
computer.
Throughout flight, measure-
ments are taken to verify proper
booster performance, and the
signals are routed to the Orbiter
for data recording and trans-
mission to the ground. Electrical
power for Solid Rocket Booster
subsystems is supplied from the
Orbiter fuel cells through inter-
connect cabling from the Ex-
ternal Tank.
At burnout, the two Solid
Rocket Boosters are separated
from the External Tank by pyro-
technic (explosive) devices and
moved away from the Shuttle
vehicle by eight separation roc-
ket motors, four housed in the
forward nose frustum and four
on the aft skirt. Each of the
eight separation motors develops
a thrust of 97,856 N. (22,000
Ibs.) for a duration of a little
more than one-half second, just
enough to move the boosters
away from the still-accelerating
Orbiter and External Tank. Also
a part of the system is a device
for separating electrical inter-
connection with the External
Tank.
The Solid Rocket Booster re-
covery subsystem provides the
method to control the boosters'
final descent velocity and attitude
after separation. The recovery
subsystem, located in the forward
section of each booster and with-
in the nose cap, consists of para-
chutes and location aids to help
in the search and retrieval opera-
tions for each expended booster
and its parachutes after they
reach the ocean.
Following separation and entry
into the lower atmosphere a t
about 4,700 m. (15,400 ft.), each
booster is,slowed by a pilot and a
drogue parachute and finally by
three main parachutes, each
31.7 m. (115 ft.) in diameter.
They impact the water, a f t end
first, about 257.5 km. (160 mi.)
 NOZZLE EXTENSION
7

FRUSTUM FORWARD MOTOR SYSTEMS TWO CASE

SEGMENT TUNNEL STIFFENER AFT SKIRT
RINGS

downrange a t a speed of about The structural elements of the

95.5 kmlhr (60 mph). By enter- booster are manufactured to
ing the water this way, the air Marshall design by the McDonnell
in the hollow boosters is trapped Douglas Astronautics Co. of
and compressed, causing the Huntington Beach, Calif.
boosters to float with the for- United Space Boosters, Inc.,
ward end sticking up out of the Huntsville, Ala., is responsible
water. At booster impact, the for preassembly and checkout of
main parachutes are disconnected the forward and aft skirt booster
and direction-finding beacons assemblies as well as final assembly
and lights are actuated t o guide of the complete boosters.
recovery craft to the booster and A t the launch site, the two
the parachutes. The parachutes boosters are assembled vertically
are picked up by a recovery on the launch platform. Follow-
craft and the boosters towed t~ ing assembly sf the boosters, the
shoi-e, where they are disassembled External Tank is attached to the
for refurbishment. The motor boosters and finally the Orbiter
segments are shipped to the manu- and payload to the External Tank,
facturer by rail for refurbishment making the Shuttle ready for
and reloading for another Shuttle checkout and flight.
flight. The other systems are re-
furbished a t either the launch
site or a t their respective manu- Solid rocket propellant
facturer's location. being mixed
The thrust vector control sub-
system, structural subsystem, and
the electrical subsystems are
planned for 20 flights and the re-
covery subsystem for 10 flights.
The separation system is not
planned for reuse.
The Marshall Space Flight Center
performed the detailed design and
integration work on the Solid Rock-
et ~oostersubsystems "in-house."
Boosters are assembled
in a vertical position
The motor was developed by the
Wasatch Division of the Thiokol
Chemical Corp. of Brigham City,
Utah, which provides new and re-
furbished motors for flight.

Externa
The External Tank has two
major roles in the Space Shuttle
program. First, to contain and
deliver quality propellants, liquid
hydrogen and liquid oxygen, to
the engines. Second, to serve as
the structural backbone of the
Space Shuttle during launch
operations. It is the only major
element of the Shuttle not
designed to be reused.
The External Tank is composed
of two tanks, a large hydrogen
tank and a'smaller oxygen tank,
joined together by a collar-like
intertank to form one large pro-
pellant storage container 46.89 m.
(153.84 ft.) long and 8.4 m.
(27.58 ft.) in diameter.
The oxygen tank is the forward
portion of the External Tank and
when loaded, contains 632,772
(1,395,000 Ibs.) of liquid oxygen.
(As a comparison, the oxygen
tank has 552 cubic meters or
19,563 cubic feet - - more volume
than that of a 186 sq.m. or 2,000
sq. ft. house.)
The forward end of the oxygen
tank curves to a point to reduce
aerodynamic drag and i t s tip
serves as a lightning rod for the
Shuttle vehicle once the Shuttle
has cleared the launch pad. Prior
to launch, lightning protection
is provided by the launch tower.
The liquid hydrogen tank, aft
of the oxygen tank, is about two
' and one-half times larger than the
oxygen tank. In this tank is
Inside of a liquid hydrogen tank
during assembly a t Michoud
stored 106,142 kg. (234,000 Ibs.)
of cold liquid hydrogen (about
minus 251 degrees C or minus
420 degrees F).
The intertank joins the two
tanks and provides a protective
compartment to house some of
the instrumentation components
in the space between the two
propellant tanks.
For launch, the External Tank
supports the Orbiter and Solid
Rockets Boosters a t attach points
on the tank. Since thrust is
generated by the Orbiter main
engines and the Solid Rocket
Boosters, the External Tank
must absorb the thrust loads for
the Shuttle during launch. The
intertank takes the major thrust
loads from the Solid Rocket
Booster, and the Orbiter main
engine thrust loads are transferred
through other attach fittings on
the tank.
Most of the outer surfaces of
the tank are protected thermally.
Spray-on foam insulation is
applied over the forward portion
of the oxygen tank, the inter-
tank, and the sides of the hydro-
gen tank. The foam insulation is
needed to reduce ice or frost for-
mation on the tank during launch
preparation, thus protecting the
Orbiter insulation from free-
falling ice during flight. It also
serves to minimize heat leaks
into the tank which would cause
excessive boiling of the liquid

INTEGRAL STRINGERS
BAFFLES
propellants, and to prevent
liquification and solidification
of the air next to the tank.
An ablating material that
chars away, taking heat with it,
is applied under the foam to the
front and back ends of the Ex-
ternal Tank and to other areas
where aerodynamic heating is
most severe during flight.
This protection is also needed in
areas where exhausts of launch
engines provide high radiant
energy to the tank and where
separation motors' exhaust
plumes may strike the tank.
The External Tank, having no
electrical power sources of i t s
own, obtains all needed electrical
energy from the Orbiter fuel cells.
It does, however, provide the
cabling needed to carry power
and signals to the External Tank
electronics and instrumentation
components and to the two
Solid Rocket Boosters.
Fluid controls and valves, ex-
cept the vent valves, for opera-
tion of the engines are located in
the Orbiter. This is done to mini-
mize throw-away costs since the
External Tank is not reused.
During flight the two tanks are
pressurized by gases supplied
from the three engines. Pressuri-
zation is needed for structural
support of the tank and also for
operating-pressure requirements
of the engine pumps.
Near the end of the launch
FORWARD ATTACH
PLATE
phase of a Shuttle mission when sites. For shipment to Vanden-
the Orbiter is just short of orbital berg a barge capable of hauling
velocity the main engines are cut more than one External Tank
off. About 10 seconds later, the will be used.
External Tank is severed from its During transportation, the
attachment to the Orbiter, play- External Tank rests on a wheeled
ing a totally passive role in the transporter, modified from the
separation sequence. Just prior Saturn Program, and remains on
to separation the External Tank the transporter until it arrives a t
tumbling system is activated the Vehicle Assembly Building
opening a valve and venting the at the Kennedy Center or a t the
oxygen tank through the nose launch pad a t Vandenberg.
cap. This causes the External A barge takes about five days
Tank to tumble a t a rate that will to move an External Tank from
assure the tank will break up as Michoud to the Kennedy dock.
predicted upon reentry and fall Shipment to California by barge
within the designated ocean is by way of the Panama Canal -
impact area. and will take about 25 days.
The External Tank i s manu- After arrival a t the launch site,
factured, assembled and given the tanks are stored until needed
final acceptance testing a t the for flight - vertically in the VAB
Michoud Assembly Facility a t Kennedy and horizontally on
(MAF) in New Orleans, a the transporter at Vandenberg.
Marshall Space Flight Center
plant once used to build the
first stages of the Saturn I B and
Saturn V launch vehicles for
the Apollo and Skylab Programs.
The tanks are built a t Michoud
by the Denver Division of Mar-
tin Marietta Aerospace.
when production reaches
maximum, the tanks will be
produced at a rate of about 55
tanks per year. The barge trans-
portation system that was
developed to deliver NASA's
Saturn stages to Kennedy is
used for the delivery of the
External Tank to the launch
 The Space Shuttle has the capa-
bility to conduct a wide variety
of space missions in response to
national and worldwide needs.
The primary mission for the
Space Shuttle is the low-cost
delivery of payloads to and from
'
Earth orbit. The Shuttle system
can place payloads of up to
29,484 kg. (65,000 Ibs.) into
low Earth orbit and return pay-
loads up to 14,515 kg. (32,000
Ibs). Payloads with propulsion
stages can place satellites into
high Earth orbit or into lunar
or planetary trajectories.
Already planned for Shuttle
are payloads that will help to
further improve weather fore-
casting and communications and
Earth-observation satellites that
will permit a continuous inven-
tory of the world's natural re-
sources and permit them to be
applied more effectively to
meeting human needs. Other
Shuttle payloads will continue
to obtain information on the
chemistry and physics of the
Sun, stars, planets, and the
space through which Earth is
traveling. Still others will ex-
tend into space man's earth-
bound research in such areas as
medicine, biology, chemistry,
physics, and material manufac-
turing processes.
Foremost among the planning
is Spacelab, a fully-equipped
space laboratory being developed
by II European nations under
the guidance of the European
Space Agency and supported by
NASA with the Marshall Space
Flight Center performing as the
lead center. Spacelab, carried
into space in the Orbiter cargo
bay, will be adaptable to many
types of space operations, ac-
commodating up t~ four non-
astronaut scientists t o conduct
a myriad of experiments in a
true space environment - - Earth
observations, space technology,
biological studies and others. In
addition to i t s Spacelab develop-
ment role, the Marshall Center
will manage the first three
missions, now set to begin in
1983.
Another significant payload for
the mid-1980s i s the Space Tele-
scope, being developed by the
Marshall Center and associates as
an optical telescope that will be
placed in orbit enabling scientists
to see deep into space - - seven
times farther than ever before.
The Shuttle will place the un-
manned telescope in orbit and
later serve as a base from which
astronauts may make repairs and
possibly replace instrument pack-
ages for new experiments.
Major payload activity is also
forecast for geosynchronous or-
bits, deep-space missions, ellip-
tical orbits and higher circular
orbits. Payloads with such
destinations will require a pro-
pulsion stage in addition to the
Shuttle.
The Space Shuttle will deliver
the payload, with a propulsion
stage attached, t o low Earth orbit
and will stand by until the stage
boosts the payload to the desired
orbit. Initially, Inertial Upper
Stages are being developed for
such non-planetary missions. An
advanced reusable orbiter transfer
vehicle is also being studied by
Marshall.
Yet another payload of major
significance is the Marshall Cen-
ter's proposed Space Platform,
an experiment-supporting system
that would be carried into orbit
by the Shuttle in the late 1980s.
The platform is designed to fill
the growing needs of the scientific
and industrial communities who
require longer orbiting times,
greater power and other services
for their research and observa-
tions in space. One of the pri-
Spacelab 2 Configuration
Far left: Space Telescope

Center left: Spacelab

Left: Building Space Structures

mary advantages of the platform

i s that it can provide power for
'
long periods of time, either to
experiments on board the Shuttle
or to those left attached to the
platform after the Shuttle re-
turns to Earth. The initial plat-
form would provide 12 kw. of
power and would have growth
capability to a t least twice that
amount, but future designs may
provide as much as 100 kw. or
more. By the early 1990s the
platform may even evolve to a
manned version, in which rotating
crews would permanently live
and work in space.
The Space Shuttle will not be
limited to uses that can be fore-
cast today. The reduction in the Spacelab 1 Payload Specialists in the
Marshall Center Mockup
cost of Earth-orbital operations
and the new operational tech- cal processes that will allow man
niques will enable new and un- to develop unlimited pollution-
foreseen solutions of problems. free power, and t o attain knowl-
Some of these could be the edge that will lead to new prod-
key to understanding the physi- ucts and industries.

Spacelab 1 Configuration Spacelab Habitable Module Inertial Upper Stage

Launch Operations
Space Shuttle flights will be
launched from two locations:
Kennedy Space Center in Florida
and Vandenberg Air Force Base
in California. These sites were
selected based upon both NASA
and Department of Defense
(DOD) needs for projected pay-
loads and requirements for no
land mass overflight dliring the
launch of the Shuttle. Kennedy
is used t o launch both NASA
and DOD payloads into orbits of
39 to 57 degrees inclination with
respect to the equator, and Van-
denberg will be used for launches
with orbital inclinations from the payload launch capabilities of
56 to 104 degrees. (A due east the Shuttle. A due east launch
launch from Kennedy would from Kennedy, using the Earth's
yield an orbit of about 28.5 easterly rotation as a launch assist,
degrees inclination while a due will permit a payload weighing up
south launch from Vandenberg t o 29,484 kg. (65,000 Ibs.) to be
would yield an orbit of 90 de- launched. A polar orbit launch
grees, or a polar orbit.) Range from Vandenberg, where the
safety criteria restrict the launch Earth's rotation neither assists nor
directions (azimuths) from each hinders the Shuttle's capabilities,
launch site to preclude a released will permit a payload of up to
tank or booster from impacting 18,144 kg. (40,000 Ibs.) to be
a land area. From Kennedy the carried into orbit. The most
northernmost azimuth is limited westerly launch from Vandenberg
by the southeast portion of will allow a payload up to only
Newfoundland; and the southern- 14,5 15 kg. (32,000 Ibs.) to be
most azimuth is limited by the transported to orbit since the
Bahama Islands. From Vanden- Earth's rotation is counter to
berg, the land constraints include the westerly launch azimuth.
portions of Mexico t o the south-
east and the Hawaiian Islands to
the southwest.
The direction of Earth rotation
also has a significant bearing on
Ground Turnaround
The ground turnaround cycle Assembly and checkout of Launch pad operations include
for Shuttle starts on the runway the Space Shuttle vehicle begins rollout of the vehicle, connection
after the Orbiter has landed. with mating of the two Solid of the pad interfaces, launch
Preliminary safing and servic- Rocket Booster motor segments readiness checkout, countdown
ing tasks are completed on the on the mobile launch platform. preparations, loading of cryo-
runway before the Orbiter is The External Tank, having pre- genics, flight crew ingress, and
towed to the safing and deser- viously undergone i t s premate the final automatic countdown
vicing area where DO0 payloads processing in the VAB, is then sequencing.
are removed, pressurized con- moved to the assembly area Operations a t Vandenberg
tainers and fuel cell reactants and mated to the two Solid will be generally similar, although
(oxygen and hydrogen) are Rocket Boosters. The Orbiter different facilities will be used.
vented, and the hazardous fuel is then towed into the VAB When Shuttle becomes fully
modules are removed. At the transfer aisle, i t s landing gear operational it will be capable of
Kennedy Center, the Orbiter is retracted, and it is lifted into a 14-day turnaround at Kennedy,
is then transferred to a main- positionaand mated with the from landing to lift-off. The turn-
tenance and checkout facility External Tank to complete the around figure is based upon 160
where it undergoes inspection, Shuttle assembly. The connec- working hours, amounting to two
maintenance, limited servicing, tions are verified in the Shuttle shifts a day, five days a week,
and checkout, e.g., inspection interface test, and ordnance is for two weeks. Vandenberg opera-
of the insulation. added to the Shuttle for separa- tion will take slightly longer, or
New payloads are then installed tion and range safety functions. about 205 hours.
in the Orbiter in preparation for
premate checkout of the Orbiter
prior to vehicle assembly. (Cer.
tain time-critical payloads or
hazardous payloads, and all
DOD payloads, will be installed
on the launch pad using the
Payload Changeout Room a t
the pad.) The hypergolic
modules (hazardous fuels for
reaction control, power units,
maneuvering systems, etc.)
which have undergone separate
inspection, maintenance and
checkout a t the hypergolic
Orbiter Processing Facility Checkout on the Pad
servicing facility are installed
before the Orbiter is transferred
to the Vehicle Assembly Build-
ing (VAB).
The Shutt e Deve opment Team
Management of the Space
Shuttle Program is shared by
NASA Headquarters, the three
NASA centers involved in
manned space flight and many
aerospace contractors. Overall
direction of the Shuttle Program
is the responsibility of NASA
Headquarters in Washington, D.C.
Johnson Space Center is responsi-
ble for program management and
systems integration and is also
the development center for the
Orbiter. The Marshall Center is
responsible for development of
the External Tank, Solid Rocket
Booster and the Shuttle main
engines, as well as certain systems
test and integration functions.
The Kennedy Space Center
serves as the launch and landing
site for missions requiring
easterly launches. The Defense
Department will operate the
Vandenberg AFB launch and
landing site.
Hundreds of private firms,
educational institutions, research
organizations and federal agencies
were involved in creating the
Space Shuttle. Some firms
supplied small items such as nuts
and bolts; others provided com-
plete systems. The Shuttle
prime contractors and some key
subcontractors are included in
the following list.
ORBITER
PRIME CONTRACTOR - Rockwell International, Space Division, Downey, Calif.
SUBCONTRACTS
Wing - Grumman Aerospace, Bethpage, N. Y.
Vertical f a i l - Fairchild Republic, Farmingdale, N. Y.
M i d Fuselage - General Dynamics, San Diego, Calif.
Reusable Surface Insulation - Lockheed Missiles and Space Co., Sunnyvale, Calif.
Orbital Maneuvering System - McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co., St. Louis. Mo.
Orbital Maneuvering Engines - Aerojet Liquid Rocket Co., Sacramento, Calif.
EXTERNAL TANK
PRIME CONTRACTOR - Martin Marietta Aerospace, Denver, Colo.
SUBCONTRACTS
lntertank - Avco Corp., Nashville, Tenn.
Dome Caps - General Dynamics, San Diego, Calif.
Ogive and Dome Gores - Aircraft Hydroforming, Gardena, Calif.
Tank Weld Tools - L T V Aerospace, Dallas, Tex.
GorelDome Weld Tools - The Boeing Company, Seattle, Wash.
SOLID ROCKET BOOSTER
PRIMARY MANAGEMENT - Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala.
SUBCONTRACTS
Assembly and Checkout - United States Boosters Inc., Huntsville, Ala.
Solid Rocket Motor - Thiokol Corp., Brigham City, Utah
Structures - McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co., Huntington Beach, Calif.
Decelerator Subsystem - Martin Marietta Aerospace, Denver, Colo.
Integrated Electronics Assembly - Bendix Corp., Teterboro, N. J.
Booster Separation Motor - United Technology Corp., Sunnyvale, Calif.
Parachutes - Pioneer Parachute Co., Manchester, Conn.
SPACE SHUTTLE M A I N ENGINE
PRIME CONTRACTOR - Rockweli International, Rocketdyne Div., Canoga Park, Calif.
SUBCONTRACTS
Controller - Honeywell Inc., Minneapolis, Minn.
Hydraulic Actuator System - Hydraulic Research, Valencia, Calif.
a U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1982 384-715
20