Volume 9, No.

2
April 2005

Dr. Carol Ann Goff-Kfouri is presently Assistant Professor in the Department of English
and Education at Notre Dame University. Dr. Goff-Kfouri served as chair of the English
Department from 1994-2000. The English Department at NDU includes the Translation
and Interpretership program. She is presently Academic Advisor to Translation and
Interpretership students. She holds degrees from Gonzaga University in the US, the
University of Montpellier, France and the University of the Holy Spirit, Lebanon. She has
taught in the bi-lingual programs in Ontario, Canada, Montpellier and Perpignan, France
and Lebanon. Dr. Goff-Kfouri organizes and carries out workshops on classroom
management and methodology for major Beirut secondary schools and presents papers at
conferences in Lebanon and abroad. Dr. Goff-Kfouri is co-author of "On Your Own", a
series of six English-language textbooks published by the Lebanese government. Dr.
Kfouri has published a translation of Charles Corm's La Montagne Inspirée into English
by Notre Dame University Press.

Dr. Goff-Kfouri can be reached at

nccjk@inco.com.lb.
Language Learning in Translation Classrooms
by Carol Ann Goff-Kfouri, Ph.D.

"Learning is a social process that occurs through interpersonal interaction

within a cooperative context. Individuals, working together, construct
shared understandings and knowledge."

David Johnson, Robert Johnson, and Karl Smith. Active

Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom.
Edina, Mn: Interaction Book Co., 1991.

haven't heard it recently, but there was a time when it was common to hear people say,
"those who can, do; those who can't, teach." Perhaps this saying has lost its appeal
because first of all more and more educators have realized the advantages students reap
when professionals add their competence to the academic framework. Second, there are
many people both working in their fields and teaching in a university setting. Prominent
translation trainers such as Gouadec, Kiraly and Pym have emphasized the advantages of
work-simulated translation classes; professionals are the logical instructors in such
programs (Gouadec: 1999; Kiraly: 1995; Pym: 2002).

Although practicing translators and interpreters are not in the classroom to learn, one of
the major benefits to teaching is definitely how much teachers do learn about the
complexity of the learning process by supporting student efforts to become competent
professionals. One of the common errors that new instructors at university make however
is to assume that their students are already expert learners. Because university students
are adults, many instructors presume that their own role consists of presenting material
once, applying it briefly and then moving on to a new concept. They often assume
students are able to apply newly acquired concepts in foreign situations after having been
exposed only briefly. However, this may not be the case. In reality, each classroom is
made up of a set of individuals with their own backgrounds, learning styles and academic
levels. Translation professionals preparing to share their techniques and experience with
students will find it helpful to review the basic ways it is believed that students learn.
This article explores learning approaches applicable to translation instructors whose goal
it is to improve their students' language learning competence. Bob Hodge in Teaching as
Communication (1993) stated that "language, above all, holds a community together" (p.
2). Even though children learn a language implicitly, people who use languages as the
tools of their professions, such as translators and interpreters, must learn languages much
more deeply than others. Although the discussion of how people learn is still a very
controversial subject, those approaches that follow may be particularly applicable to adult
learners.

One of the roles of a psychologist is to investigate the way people learn. One of the most
influential explanations has been the behaviorist approach. An instructor who uses this
approach would break up knowledge into small, logically organized pieces of information
and provide positive reinforcement so that students learn to use that information.
Behaviorists emphasize repetition of material so that it becomes a natural reaction for the
student. Behaviorism has fallen from favor somewhat recently with the broadly held
belief today that learning is a complex activity involving more than just repetition.
However, language students and students who use language do benefit from a certain
amount of well thought-out repetition and the use of models as a basis for their writing.

A more recent explanation of how to encourage learning, the cognitive approach, is quite
appropriate to university teaching as it recognizes that learning is not only the recall of
facts but also involves memory, reasoning, critical thinking and problem solving, all of
which are applicable to the daily activities of a translator or interpreter. According to
Svinicki in Memory Enhancement (1997), six principles of cognitive learning can be
directly applied to learning.

1. Students must see the information to be learned as important to their lives.

Implication: the instructor must show the students how this information is
beneficial.

2. During learning, learners act on information to make it more meaningful.

Implication: Instructors and students should clarify information through

examples, images, elaborations and links to prior knowledge.

3. Learners store information in long-term memory in an organized fashion related

to their existing understanding of the world.

Implication: Instructors should provide an organized structure in their

presentation of information.

4. Learners constantly check understanding which results in refinement of what is

retained.

Implication: Instructors should provide opportunities.

5. Transfer of learning to new contexts is not automatic; it results from exposure to

multiple applications.

Implication: Instructors should provide links for later transfer.

6. Learners who are aware of their learning strategies and monitor their learning
habits will learn more rapidly.

Implication: Instructors should help students become aware of how they learn.
One additional very interesting theory of learning from the late 20th century presented an
innovative method of viewing individual students' learning styles and increasing their
motivation to learn. Howard Gardner postulated that students do not all learn in the same
manner; students may not all be cognitively gifted. He stated that there are in fact eight
types of intelligence: intrapersonal, interpersonal, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial,
verbal/linguistic, bodily/kinesthetic, naturalist and musical/rhythmic. (Gay, G. 2000,
Culturally Responsive Teaching Theory).

University instructors may incorporate appreciation of these eight types of intelligence to

involve more students in learning efficiently. For example, if many students in the
classroom seem to be intrapersonal learners, that is, they prefer to work individually, it
may be beneficial to pause between parts of your explanation and let the students think
about the explanation and then leave a short question or comment period. Intrapersonal
learners prefer to work alone rather than in a team setting. Interpersonal learners would
benefit from team-oriented teaching and small group work assignments. If students are
visually oriented, it may be beneficial to use diagrams, charts and graphs to further back
up the principles of your teaching. Some students may need to picture the relationships
between ideas in order to apply them. Students of translation who have a scientific
background may benefit from the problem-solving approach. The main implication of
this theory is that students do not all learn in the same manner, but it does not signify that
they cannot learn. It only means that instructors should try to teach in ways that will
motivate the desire to learn in as many students as possible. Translation instructors will
often find that their students come from varying backgrounds; some have scientific
degrees, others have law degrees and some are interested in the humanities and the arts.
Gardner's theory encourages instructors to take the various backgrounds into
consideration when planning the strategies they use in the classroom.

The famous Russian psychologist, Vygotsky believed that instructors who organize their
teaching based on how much knowledge the students already possess and move on from
that point will aid the students to acquire confidence in their ability to learn and progress.
He also postulated that language accompanies thought; he called it "inner speech"
(Hodge, B. 2000, p.113.). Students should be allowed to verbalize and talk through their
learning process. Vygotsky's point of view may be the point of focus for the foundation
for learner-centered classrooms that provide students the opportunity to apply Svinicki's
principles. Offering students options to allow for differences in their interests, making
sure that there is both teacher-student, and student-student discussion of content and
emphasizing class activities that encourage both understanding and application of the
principles taught is the crux of learning (Brophy, 1997). Learner-centered classrooms can
be considered to be the fruit of the self-regulated learning principle. There are many
definitions for learner-centered classrooms; the most practical are those which stress
student need as the basis for classroom teaching.

The development of technology at such a rapid pace has propelled the term "life-long
learning" to become a part of learning theory and strategies. Not only do contemporary
educators believe that all students can learn, but they also support the idea of continuing
education once the student has graduated. A degree or a diploma no longer signals the
end of one's education. Rather, it should indicate that degree holders are able to recognize
the limits of their knowledge and have the ability to search further for answers.
Instructors can only indicate means to access information and incite students to keep
abreast of new additions to their profession. Motivation and learning are thus closely
related.

On the university level, learning may be enhanced through the intrinsic motivation of the
student. Intrinsic motivation is the belief that the material being taught has a direct
relationship to the real-life needs of the students. For instance, a translation student who
wants to work with the European Union after obtaining a degree will quickly grasp the
necessity of knowing the intricacies of Europe's geography. Relevance to the student's
future plans makes this assignment intrinsically valuable. The instructor will not have to
insist that the student study carefully. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is the
material benefits students earn when they prepare an assignment. A high mark is extrinsic
motivation to do well; a scholarship, a high-profile internship are also examples of
extrinsic motivation. Even though it is evident that a mature student should work for the
intrinsic value learning has, extrinsic motivation is an added plus. In fact, there have been
many studies done that have shown clearly how motivation enhances learning (Good,T.
& Brophy, J. 1991). The self-efficacy theory has shown that students vary in the way they
evaluate their ability to learn. Some students believe that they have a high ability to learn
and generally perform at high standards. Others see themselves as slow learners, or see
certain subjects as difficult to comprehend. They are directly influenced by their
perceptions of their learning abilities and may not perform to their potential. University
instructors should be sensitive to the perceptions students have of their abilities and teach
so that students see that success is an achievable goal.

It is clear from the learning theories above that university education is not an end in itself
and university instructors are not only fonts of knowledge. Today's university instructor
provides tools so that students may themselves build their knowledge base.

How students learn languages and are able to use them to earn a living is quite a complex
subject. If you experiment and look up the word "language" in a linguistic book index,
you will see that you are asked to consult, "meaning." This is not at all surprising since
languages do not exist in a void. Without meaning, language is gibberish. One of the
most common normative definitions of the term "language" is: "a body of words and
symbols governed by rules that tie people together into a speech community." When
people of one speech community wish to communicate with those of another community,
translators are needed. When methods of communication between communities are
studied, education is also a factor to be considered. According to Hodge, (2000,p.1),
"good teaching and good learning alike are so dependent on language and communication
that the two are inseparable." Translators and media specialists have the enormous
responsibility of assuming the role of a bridge between communities who either have the
need to communicate such as in the translation of technical texts, or who desire access to
another's cultural richness. Knowing the other's language as intimately as possible is the
basic means of accomplishing these tasks with success.
The language study is one of the oldest domains in education. The four basic elements of
culture: language, communication, translation and education have been examined since at
least 1600 b.c. when we first have proof that linguists were questioning the sources of
language (Framkin & Rodman, 1998:26). Even though language and discussion of how
people learn language have been with us for a long time, there is a still a lot we do not
know. Many linguistics textbooks still amazingly begin with statements such as "we
know only this," "there is a lot we do not know," or "yet unknown mechanisms." Scholars
are still trying to determine how people learn a first language and what parts of that
mechanism are, if any, are transferred when we learn a second or third language.
According to neurolinguists, the main language centers are located in the left hemisphere
of the brain (Fromkin & Rodman, 1998:56). Broca's area, in the front, Wernicke's area in
the back, and the angular gyrus, also located in the back of the brain are known to play
the main role in a person's language ability (Steinberg, 1993: 180.)

As a translation instructor, it is definitely not necessary to become a neurolinguist, but it

is helpful to be aware of the factors that influence language learning and take those into
consideration as you plan your classes.

Sociolinguists, scholars who study language and how humans acquire it, believe that
there are psychological, social and perhaps genetic factors that allow students to progress
more or less rapidly than others. Specialists in semiotics have added that verbal and non-
verbal factors influence how well students may learn languages (Hodge, B. 2000, p.21.)

Although his work may no longer be universally agreed upon, Noam Chomsky has made
most of the inroads into language learning theory. According to Chomsky, there are
certain language universals. The first is that all languages are learnable. The second states
that all languages share certain characteristics, and the third contends that there are rules
and principles that speakers apparently follow in making sentences. In the classroom,
translation instructors are particularly concerned with points two and three. If all
languages share characteristics, instructors should help the student recognize them and
use these characteristics in their translation activities. In order to facilitate translation,
instructors should make the rules of language available to their students. Chomsky also
made a now very famous distinction between language competence and language
performance. Competence is just the knowledge the student possesses of the grammar of
a language; performance is considered the ability to produce through use of one's
competence (Steinberg, 1993: 97).

In order to understand how adults may excel in language learning, researchers have
delved into the ways children acquire language and have established some correlations.
The main correlations seem to stem from the knowledge that children understand their
native language before they actually speak it. They pick up the rhythm, pitch, stress and
melody of the language and imitate the lyrics of the language before they actually speak
it fluently first by saying single words, then two-word units, grammatically incorrect
sentences and finally logical, correct expressions of meaning (Steinberg, p. 4).
In addition to understanding a language before speaking it, memory is also extremely
important. Children learn languages more quickly when they are able to visualize the
object, hear the sound of its name and then store that link in their minds for further
retrieval. This fact is linked to basic theories of education from the time of John Locke
who emphasized the need for a student to have access to an object so as to internalize its
meaning.

Fromkin and Rodman also emphasized the important role creativity plays in the
acquisition of language. Although there may be a certain primitive resemblance between
human and animal language, animal language is finite and the messages are stimulus-
controlled (1998:13). Human beings write fiction and poetry; they sing songs in duets,
and in choirs. Animals do not.

Research on second-language acquisition is advancing very rapidly. Until Chomsky's

research, repetition and mechanical drills comprised the essence of language learning
curricula. But classroom drill was found to be insufficient; logic and communication
competence are now emphasized.

Many brilliant approaches to teaching translation are applications of general learning and
language learning theory. The functionalist approach to translation as explained in
Translating as a purposeful Activity in 1997 by Christiane Nord emphasizes the need to
make a translation "purposeful" (p. 1). Translators take practicality into consideration as
they transfer a text from one language into another. There are many other approaches, as
well.

In our everyday teaching of language, or language-related activities in the classroom we

can take advantage of the above research. Through even such a brief overview, it is clear
that instructors who use concrete examples, who introduce creativity into their activities
and offer students opportunities to achieve success frequently are offering interesting and
beneficial experiences for their students.

As an example of writing exercises useful to students, which aims at reducing the gap
between a native speaker and a translation student, the following has proven successful in
improving both language competence and business writing proficiency of student
translators. It would be plausible to expand on this sample in a variety of ways by asking
students to translate an already well-written e-mail and to compare the English version
with the French or Spanish. The instructor's creativity and desire to fulfill the objective of
supplying opportunities for students to feel comfortable in the use of their prime tool,
language, are the only boundaries.

E-mail Writing

One 50-minute session would be necessary to ensure sufficient practice.

Objectives: At the end of the session, the student will: be aware of the need to follow
international format; be exposed to the principles of modern e-mail practices and will
practice writing e-mails.

Activity One: If students are in a computer lab for your class, ask them to open some e-
mails and objectively analyze their professional content and format. 10 min.

Students will certainly point out SHOUTING, (all capital letters) in some e-mails.

They may also notice chatroom-style abbreviations such as "u" or "ur." They may notice
that there is no correct closing, etc.

Inform students of the following e-mail facts:

An e mail in business must be composed as if it were a formal memo, or letter. The same
rules of format apply.

• Begin the e-mail with a salutation (Dear Mr. Smith, Dear Ms. Jamison, etc.)
• Repeat the subject line in the first line of the e-mail.
• Organize the e-mail in paragraphs. Use the direct approach: i.e., ask, or inquire in
the first paragraph, explain why in the second paragraph and close with a
diplomatic ending.
• End your e-mail with a closing such as, sincerely.
• Include your signature with an address, and a phone number or fax. This makes
the e-mail less "virtual."

Show students an e-mail, which does not fulfill its purpose.

Example:

Subject: Clients

Mary, can u send me your list of clients you have been dealing with for the
last 5 months. Want to check if we their accounts are closed.

Ask students to correct this simple e-mail.

Example:

Subject: Client Accounts

Dear Mary,

Would you please send me a list of the clients with whom you have been
dealing for the last 5 months?
 The accounting department wants to verify if their payments are in order.
We have been having many delays recently and we need to find a solution
to the problem.

Sincerely,

Dan Fisher, Accounting

961-334-6788

Activity Two: 25 minutes for group work, 10 minutes for presentations. Ask
students to work in pairs or small groups if they are used to doing so and provide
two case studies from which they can choose. Provide each group with an
overhead transparency if the class is not working on computer terminals. Each
group is asked to provide a model e-mail to present to the whole class. The class
will evaluate the e-mails for content, format and correct language use.

Sample Case Studies:

A. Your company produces paper products of a very high quality.

You wish to expand into the Easter European market, especially those
countries which have recently become members of the European Union.
Write an e-mail to the European Union Foreign Office department and
inquire as to the formalities you must fulfill, as well as the possibilities for
a company located outside the European Union to conduct trade with EU
countries. Address the Trade office.
B. You are the translator for the same paper product company. You
have received many complaints from customers recently saying that
English and Spanish are the only languages into which the directions for
your new paper towel dispenser have been printed. Write a customer and
assure her that the company plans to have translations in six new
languages by the end of the month. Inform the customer that online
services are available while she is waiting for the new packaging to be
produced.

Professional translators who have chosen to join a university department of

translation will certainly benefit from the time spent with students. Not only will
they be able to share their experience with eager students but also they may find
that their own translations benefit due to the review of principles and discussion
on particular points of interest. If in fact you are invited to teach a course, take
advantage of the new learning experience for yourself as well as your students.

References
Brophy, J.E. & Good, T. L. (1997). Teacher-Student Relationships Causes and
Consequences. USA: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1998). An Introduction to Language. Sixth Edition.

USA: Harcourt and Brace.

Gay, G. (2000). Culturally Responsive Teaching Theory, Research and Practice.

Multicultural Education Series, James A. Banks, Editor. USA: Teachers College

Press.

Gouadec, D. (December 1991). "Autrement dire.....Pour une redefinition des

strategies De formation des traducteurs" META vol. 36, n.4, pp543-557.

Hodge, B. (1993). Teaching as Communication. The Effective teacher Series.

Longman.

Kiraly, D. C. (1995). Pathways to Translation Pedagogy and Process. Kent,

Ohio. Kent State University Press.

"Memory Enhancement Using Cognitive Theories to improve Teaching." Cuesta

College Academic Support. [Retrieved 15 Dec 2004]
http://academic.cuesta.edu/acasupp/as/264.htm from "Using Cognitive Theories
to improve Teaching" April 1997, The Teaching Professor. Vol. 3p.4.

Pym, A. "Trial, Error and Experimentation in the Training of Translation

Teachers. [online] Retrieved 15 Dec.2004. http://www.fut.es/~apym/on-
line/trialanderror.pdf.