D EG1108 Lecture Slides For Week 4 - Node Analysis To Maximum Power

Node Voltage Analysis
z Systematic approach using KCL only

Va I2 Vb Step 1: Define Unknowns
# Choose a reference node (Ground)
I1
# All other nodes have voltage w.r.t.
I3 the reference node. Let these voltages be
Va, Vb, …. (These are unknowns)
# N-1 unknowns for a ckt with N nodes
Step 2:
# Arbitrarily assign direction of current in all resistive branches
# We can write current magnitude in terms of node voltages
Step 3:
# Write KCL equation for each of the N-1 nodes
Step 4:
# Solve N-1 simultaneous equations to find N-1 unknowns
# Once node voltages are known, you can find currents
EG1108 Electrical Engineering / Dr. Abdullah Al Mamun 1
z Systematic approach using KCL only
Va − 0 Va V −V V
I1 = = , I2 = a b , I3 = b
R1 R1 R2 R3
Va Va − Vb ⎛1 1 ⎞ 1
KCL to Node a: Ia − − ⇒ ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟Va − Vb = I a
R1 R2 ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ R2
Vb Va − Vb 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
KCL to Node b: Ib − + ⇒ − Va + ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟Vb = I b
R3 R2 R2 ⎝ R2 R3 ⎠
Equation at node 1: GaaVa – GabVb = Ia
Gaa : Sum of conductance connected to node a
Gab: Conductance connected between node a and node b
Ia: Known current entering the node a
z Generalizing the KCL equations

GaaVa − GabVb − GacVc − ..... − GaNVN = I a
− GbaVa + GbbVb − GbcVc − ..... − GbNVN = I b
− GcaVa − GcbVb + GccVc − ..... − GcNVN = I c
.....
− GNaVa − GNbVb − GNcVc − ..... + GNNVN = I N
Using Matrix Notation: ⎡ Gaa − Gab − Gac ... − GaN ⎤ ⎡Va ⎤ ⎡ I a ⎤

⎢− G Gbb − Gbc ... − GbN ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ Vb ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I b ⎥⎥
⎢ ba
⎢ − Gca − Gcb Gcc ... − GcN ⎥ ⎢ Vc ⎥ = ⎢ I c ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ... ... ... ... ... ⎥ ⎢ ... ⎥ ⎢ ... ⎥
⎢⎣− GNa − GNb − GNc ... GNN ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣VN ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I N ⎥⎦
Gxx: Sum of conductance connected to node x

Gxy = Gyx: Conductance connected between node x and node y
Ix: Sum of current entering node x
z Example: Matrix directly from Ckt
R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 5Ω, R3 = 1Ω
Ia = 3 A, Ib = 2 A
⎡ 0.7 − 0.2⎤ ⎡Va ⎤ ⎡3⎤

⎢− 0.2 1.2 ⎥ ⎢V ⎥ = ⎢2⎥
Gaa =
1
+
1
= 0.5 + 0.2 = 0.7 siemens ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ b⎦ ⎣ ⎦
R1 R2
0.7Va − 0.2Vb = 3
1
Gab = Gba = = 0.2 siemens − 0.2Va + 1.2Vb = 2
R2
Gbb =
1
+
1
= 0.2 + 1.0 = 1.2 siemens Va = 5 volt
R2 R3 Vb = 2.5 volt
5 5 − 2.5 2.5
I1 = = 2.5 A, I 2 = = 0.5 A, I 3 = = 2.5 A
2 5 1
z Problem with voltage source

z Current through a voltage source depends on the
circuit connected to it. Can not write KCL equation if a
branch contains a voltage source
Method 1: If the voltage source has a series R,
use source conversion
Alternatively,
You may choose negative end of voltage source as ground.
Then Vb=V is known. Current through R3 is (Va-V)/R3

z Problem with voltage source

4S
Current through 2V source is not known.
V1
3S V2 V3 KCL can not be written for nodes 2 & 3.
2V
3A You can include node 2 & node 3 into a

8A 1S 5S 25 A Supernode and write KCL
KCL at Node 1: − (V1 − V2 ) × 3 − 3 − 8 − (V1 − V3 ) × 4 = 0

(V1 − V2 ) × 3 + (V1 − V3 ) × 4 = −11
KCL at Supernode: (V1 − V2 ) × 3 + (V1 − V3 ) × 4 − V2 ×1 − V3 × 5 + 3 − 25 = 0

(V1 − V2 ) × 3 + (V1 − V3 ) × 4 − V2 − 5V3 = 22
We have 2 KCL equations for 3 unknowns. Third equation is:

V3 −V2 = 2
Mesh Analysis
z Systematic approach using KVL only

b R1 = 2 c R3= 4 e
+ + Mesh is a closed loop that doesn’t include
+
any other loop
I1 I2 Mesh → Window
+ V3 = 2 V
V1 = 6 V
V2 = 4 V There are 3 loops in this circuit, but 2 mesh.

‘bcefdab’ is a loop but not a mesh
a d f
Step 1: Define Meshes and Unknowns

# For each mesh, imagine a current circulating around it
# Mesh currents are unknowns to be found (I1, I2, ….)
# N unknowns for a ckt with N meshes
Step 2:
# Assign voltage polarity according to direction of mesh currents
# For a branch common between 2 meshes, you have do it twice
Mesh Analysis

b R1 = 2 c R3= 4 e
+ + Step 3:
+ # Write KVL equation for each mesh
I1 I2 # N equations for N meshes
+ V3 = 2 V
# Solve N equations to find N unknowns
V1 = 6 V
V2 = 4 V For branches common between 2 meshes,

Branch current is sum of mesh currents
a d f
Mesh 1: 6 − R1I1 − R2 (I1 − I 2 ) − 4 = 0 Mesh 2: 4 − R2 (I 2 − I1 ) − R3 I 2 + 2 = 0

( R1 + R2 ) I1 − R2 I 2 = 6 − 4 − R2 I1 + ( R2 + R3 ) I 2 = 4 + 2
Since KVL is used, it is better if all sources are voltage source

If there is a current source, use source transformation if possible.

Mesh Analysis
Mesh 1 Mesh 2
(R1 + R2 )I1 − R2 I 2 = 6 − 4 − R2 I1 + (R2 + R3 )I 2 = 4 + 2
b R1 = 2 c R3= 4 e
+ - -
+-+
I1 + I2
6V
- 2V
4V
Sum of all resistors Sum of all
in mesh i voltages in mesh i
a d f
Resistor common between

mesh i and mesh j
We can generalize this for any circuit with N meshes

Mesh Analysis
z If there are N mesh, you get N equations:

R11 I 1 − R12 I 2 − R13 I 3 − ..... − R1N I N = V1
− R21 I 1 + R22 I 2 − R23 I 3 − ..... − R2 N I N = V2
− R31 I 1 − R32 I 2 + R33 I 3 − ..... − R3 N I N = V3
.....
− R N 1 I 1 − R N 2 I 2 − R N 3 I 3 − ..... + R NN I N = V N
⎡ R11 − R12 − R13 ... − R1N ⎤ ⎡ I 1 ⎤ ⎡ V1 ⎤

Using Matrix notation: ⎢ − R R22 − R23 ... − R2 N ⎥⎥ ⎢ I ⎥ ⎢V ⎥
⎢ 21 ⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ 2⎥
⎢ − R31 − R32 R33 ... − R3 N ⎥ ⎢ I 3 ⎥ = ⎢ V3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ... ... ... ... ... ⎥ ⎢ ... ⎥ ⎢ ... ⎥
⎢⎣− R N 1 − RN 2 − RN 3 ... R NN ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I N ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V N ⎥⎦
Rii: Sum of all resistors in mesh I

Rij = Rji: Resistor common between mesh I and mesh j
Vi : Sum of all known voltages in mesh i
Superposition Theorem
z Superposition is a consequence of linearity

z This theorem is applicable to linear circuits only
R1 V1
⎡1 1⎤ V1
⎢ + ⎥ 1
V − =I
⎣ 1
R R2⎦ R2
V R2
I R1 + R2 V
V1 = + I
R1 R2 R1
We want to determine V1 R2 RR
[V, I, R1 and R2 are known] V1 = V+ 1 2 I
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
V1 = aV + bI
Both coefficients (a & b) are constant
for given values of R1 and R2
This is a linear circuit.
Any circuit consisting of sources, R, L and C is linear
z Linearity ⇒ Homogeneity & Superposition

z Homogeneity
x1 ax1
x2 …. y ⇒ ax2 ….
ay
xn axn
z Superposition
x1a x1b
x2a …. x2b ….
ya yb
xna xnb
⇓
x1a+x1b
x2a+x2b ….
y a + yb
xna+xnb
z Specific Example of Superposition
V1 0
0 y1 V2 y2
⇓
V1 + 0
y1 + y 2
0 + V2
We can consider both voltage source and current source as input to a

linear system
Variables at the output (yi) can be either current through a branch or voltage
at a node
z Any electrical quantity (voltage at a node or

current through a branch) in a linear circuit
with multiple sources can be determined by
summing that quantity obtained as response to
each source acting alone
z Method:
z Deactivate (nullify the effect of) all sources
except one to find the desired voltage/current
due to the source left
z Repeat this for all sources
z The desired quantity is sum of all voltages

/currents found in previous steps
z Deactivating/Nullifying the effect of a

source
I
Deactivating a voltage source

⇒⇒ V=0 ⇒ replace it with a short circuit
Rest of the circuit is connected

between these nodes. We want to
deactivate this source only.
+
⇒⇒ Deactivating a current source
I=0 V
⇒ replace it with an open circuit
-

z Example:
Keep voltage source &
deactivate current source:
Determine current IL.

20V
Keep current source & I L,1 = = 0.5 A.
deactivate voltage source: 16 Ω + 24 Ω
Superposition of two solutions:

IL = IL,1 + IL,2
= (0.5 A – 1.2 A) = -0.7 A
⎛ 24 Ω ⎞
I L,2 = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = −1.2 A. Negative sign indicates that current through
⎝ 24 Ω +16 Ω ⎠ RL is opposite to the assumed direction
z A dependent source can not be nullified

z What is a dependent source?
z There exists another category of sources whose
output (voltage or current) is a function of
some other voltage or current in the circuit.
Such sources are called dependent sources.
z A diamond shaped symbol is used to distinguish them
from independent sources
Voltage controlled voltage source: VS = kVX
Voltage controlled current source: IS = kVX
Current controlled voltage source: VS = kIy
Current controlled current source: IS = kIy
VX is voltage at node x in the circuit, Iy is current through branch y

z Dependent source
z Transistor, amplifier etc can be modeled using
dependent source
If VS is nullified, there will be no source in the loop on left ⇒ vd = 0
If dependent source is nullified, i.e., Avd = 0 ⇒ vd = 0

⇓
Vs = 0
There will be no current through the speaker

Nullifying a dependent source not only make that source 0 but also set
some other voltage/current in the circuit to 0

z Linearity ⇒ Superposition: You can use it to find

voltage and current but not to find power
Examination: Semester I, 2008-09
Find current through and power dissipated in RX
8Ω
I Rx ,8 A = (8 A) × =4A PRx ,8 A = (4) × 2 = 32 W
2
8Ω + 8Ω
2
⎛ 3⎞ 9
6 3 PRx ,6V = ⎜− ⎟ ×2 = W
I Rx , 6V = − A=− A ⎝ 8⎠ 32
8+6+ 2 8
2
⎛ 3⎞ 9
6Ω 3 PRx , 2 A = ⎜− ⎟ ×2 = W
I Rx , 2 A = − (2 A) × =− A ⎝ 4⎠ 8
10Ω + 6Ω 4
2
⎛ 23 ⎞
⎛ 3 3⎞ 23 PRx = ⎜ ⎟ × 2 = 16.53 W
I Rx = ⎜ 4 − − ⎟ A = A ⎝ 8 ⎠
⎝ 8 4 ⎠ 8
PRx ≠ PRx ,8 A + PRx , 6V + PRx , 2 A
Thevenin’s & Norton’s Theorem
I
+
V
-
Problem: Find the simplest equivalent circuit model for A, such that the external
circuit B would not feel any difference if A is replaced by that equivalent circuit.
The solution is contained in two theorems – Thevenin’s & Norton’s
If we write down the Ohm’s law, KVL & KCL equations, we will
have a number of equations with same number of unknowns.
If the equations are linear, we can get the following equation
after appropriate eliminations and substitutions.
−b c
aV + bI − c = 0 a ≠0⇒ V = I + = − RT I + VT → Thevenin’s
a a
−a c V
b≠0⇒ I = V + =− + IN → Norton’s
b b RN
RT I
+ Circuit B
(External
(Leon Charles Thevenin,
VT V French telegraph engineer)
apparatus
- or circuit)
Simplest model V = VT - IRT
for circuit A Consistent with equation on previous slide for a≠0
Thevenin’s equivalent Model:
Voltage source plus a series resistor
I
+ Circuit B
(Edward Lawry Norton, Bell Labs &
V (External
IN RN apparatus Hans Ferdinand Mayer, Siemens)
- or circuit)
Simplest model
for circuit A I = IN – (V/RN)
Consistent with equation on previous slide for b≠0
Norton’s equivalent Model:
Current source plus a parallel resistor
These models are true even for an apparatus instead of circuit B.

We can connect a voltmeter (to measure open loop voltage) or an ammeter
(to measure short circuit current)
z A linear 2-terminal circuit with sources and resistors
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consists of a
single voltage source (VT) and a series resistor (RT).
RT
le nt e nt
iva i val
u u
Eq E q
VT
in’s n’s
en rto
ev N o
Th
RN
IN
z A linear 2-terminal circuit with sources and resistors

can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of
a single current source (IN) and a parallel resistor
(RN).

Thevenin’s Theorem
z Open circuit condition
Circuit with
Sources and
Resistances VT = VOC
z Short circuit condition

Circuit with VT
Sources and I SC =
Resistances RT
VT VT VOC
I SC = ⇒ RT = =
RT I S I SC
Norton’s Theorem
z Open circuit condition

a
Circuit with
Sources and
Resistances
IN RN VOC = INRN
z Short circuit condition a
ISC
Circuit with
Sources and IN RN
Resistances I SC = I N
b
VOC VOC
VOC = I N RN ⇒ RN = =
IN I SC
z Steps to determining the equivalent circuit:
Thevenin Equivalent: Norton Equivalent:

(1) Find VOC (1) Find ISC
(2) Find RT (2) Find RN
z Remove R from the branch you are interested

in
z Find open circuit voltage (VOC)
z Replace R by a short circuit

z Find current through short circuit branch (ISC)
z There are 3 methods for determining RT or RN.

z Finding RT or RN:
z Circuit contains only independent sources: all 3 methods

z Both independent & dependent sources: method 2 or 3
z Circuit with dependent sources only: method 3
z Method 1: short circuit all voltage sources and

open circuit all current sources (just like
superposition).
z Equivalent resistance of the remaining network is
equal to RT or RN
z Method 2: RT (or RN) = (VOC)/(ISC)

z Finding RT or RN:
z Method 3: using test source
z Deactivate independent sources but not

dependent sources.
z Apply a test voltage (or current) at the open
terminals and determine test current (or
voltage).
z RT(or RN) = (VTest)/(ITest)
This method is suitable for any circuit
This method is useful if a circuit contains
dependent sources only

z Example 1: (independent sources only)
I1 I3
I2 ISC
VOC
Find VOC: Find ISC:

VOC is voltage across 2 kΩ ISC = I3 + 0.5 A.
1050 I1 + 2000 I 2 = 5 5V
I SC = + 0.5 = 0.5047 A
I 2 = I1 + 0.5 1050
I1 = −0.3262 A
I 2 = 0.1737 A
VOC = 2000 I 2 = 347.54 V

z Example 1: (independent sources only)
Find RT or RN:
Method 1: Deactivate sources Method 2: VOC/ISC
RT (or RN ) =
VOC 347.54
= = 688.61 Ω
I SC 0.5047
RT (or RN ) = (1050) || (2000)

1050 × 2000
= = 688.5246 Ω Thevenin’s
3050 Norton’s
Equivalent Equivalent
z Example 2: (Both dependent & independent sources)
I2
ISC
VOC
Find VOC: Find ISC:

VOC is voltage across 2 kΩ ISC = 101Ib
⎛ 5 ⎞
1050 I b + 2000 I 2 = 5 I SC = 101⎜ ⎟ = 0.48 A
⎝ 1050 ⎠
I 2 = 101I b
Find RT(or RN):
I b = 0.025 mA
VOC = 2000(101I b ) = 5.05 V RT (or RN ) =
VOC 5.05
= = 10.5 Ω
I SC 0.48

z Example 3: (Using test voltage/current)
I2
ISC
VOC
Find VOC: Find ISC:

VOC is voltage across 2 kΩ ISC = 101Ib
⎛ 5 ⎞
1050 I b + 2000 I 2 = 5 I SC = 101⎜ ⎟ = 0.48 A
⎝ 1050 ⎠
I 2 = 101I b
VT or IN is determined using similar
I b = 0.025 mA
steps as shown in the first 2 methods.
VOC = 2000(101I b ) = 5.05 V Method of finding RT or RN using test
voltage is shown in the next slide
z Example 3: (Using test voltage/current)
I2 Independent source must be

deactivated while using this method
for finding RT (or RN)
I2
VTest = 2000 × (101I b + I Test ) 2000 ×101

VTest = − VTest + 2000 I Test
= 2000 × 101I b + 2000 I Test 1050
193.38VTest = 2000 I Test
(1000 + 50)I b = −VTest
RT (or RN ) =
VTest 2000
= = 10.34Ω
VTest I Test 193.38
Ib = −
1050
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
z Defines the condition under which power

transferred to a load is maximized
z Consider a practical voltage source (VS and RS are
known) providing power to a load of resistance RL
RS VS
IL = PL is always positive
IL RS + RL
RL = 0 ⇒ PL = 0
VS RL VS2 RL RL = ∞ ⇒ PL = 0
PL = I RL =
2
L
(RS + RL )2
PL Value of RL that maximizes PL must satisfy
dPL d ⎛ VS2 RL ⎞
=0 ⇒ ⎜ ⎟
dRL dRL ⎜ (R + R )2 ⎟ = 0
RL ⎝ S L ⎠

z Differentiating PL with respect to RL

d ⎛ VS2 RL ⎞ VS2 [(RS + RL ) − 2(RS + RL )RL ]
2
⎜ ⎟=
⎜ 2 ⎟
dRL ⎝ (RS + RL ) ⎠ (RS + RL )4
dPL
=0 ⇒ (RS + RL )2 − 2(RS + RL )RL = 0
dRL
⇓
RS + RL − 2 RL = 0
⇓ For a given source (VS & RS), maximum power
RL = RS is transferred to load if RL = RS
This condition is valid when VS & RS are known and
you can choose RL
For a given RL, power transfer is VS2 RL

PL = I RL =
2
maximum when RS=0 L
(RS + RL )2
z Any electrical system can be represented by a

single source plus resistor
Abstraction of Speaker
Resistance (RL)
Thevenin’s
Equivalent
You can apply Maximum Power Transfer

theorem for proper design

D EG1108 Lecture Slides For Week 4 - Node Analysis To Maximum Power

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

D EG1108 Lecture Slides For Week 4 - Node Analysis To Maximum Power

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Node Voltage Analysis

z Systematic approach using KCL only

z Systematic approach using KCL only

z Generalizing the KCL equations

Using Matrix Notation: ⎡ Gaa − Gab − Gac ... − GaN ⎤ ⎡Va ⎤ ⎡ I a ⎤

Gxx: Sum of conductance connected to node x

z Example: Matrix directly from Ckt

⎡ 0.7 − 0.2⎤ ⎡Va ⎤ ⎡3⎤

z Problem with voltage source

EG1108 Electrical Engineering / Dr. Abdullah Al Mamun 5

z Problem with voltage source

3A You can include node 2 & node 3 into a

KCL at Node 1: − (V1 − V2 ) × 3 − 3 − 8 − (V1 − V3 ) × 4 = 0

KCL at Supernode: (V1 − V2 ) × 3 + (V1 − V3 ) × 4 − V2 ×1 − V3 × 5 + 3 − 25 = 0

We have 2 KCL equations for 3 unknowns. Third equation is:

z Systematic approach using KVL only

V2 = 4 V There are 3 loops in this circuit, but 2 mesh.

Step 1: Define Meshes and Unknowns

z Systematic approach using KVL only

V2 = 4 V For branches common between 2 meshes,

Mesh 1: 6 − R1I1 − R2 (I1 − I 2 ) − 4 = 0 Mesh 2: 4 − R2 (I 2 − I1 ) − R3 I 2 + 2 = 0

Since KVL is used, it is better if all sources are voltage source

EG1108 Electrical Engineering / Dr. Abdullah Al Mamun 8

z Systematic approach using KVL only

Resistor common between

We can generalize this for any circuit with N meshes

EG1108 Electrical Engineering / Dr. Abdullah Al Mamun 9

z If there are N mesh, you get N equations:

⎡ R11 − R12 − R13 ... − R1N ⎤ ⎡ I 1 ⎤ ⎡ V1 ⎤

Rii: Sum of all resistors in mesh I

z Superposition is a consequence of linearity

z Linearity ⇒ Homogeneity & Superposition

z Specific Example of Superposition

We can consider both voltage source and current source as input to a

z Any electrical quantity (voltage at a node or

z The desired quantity is sum of all voltages

z Deactivating/Nullifying the effect of a

Deactivating a voltage source

Rest of the circuit is connected

EG1108 Electrical Engineering / Dr. Abdullah Al Mamun 15

Determine current IL.

Superposition of two solutions:

z A dependent source can not be nullified

VX is voltage at node x in the circuit, Iy is current through branch y

If VS is nullified, there will be no source in the loop on left ⇒ vd = 0

If dependent source is nullified, i.e., Avd = 0 ⇒ vd = 0

There will be no current through the speaker

EG1108 Electrical Engineering / Dr. Abdullah Al Mamun 18

z Linearity ⇒ Superposition: You can use it to find

These models are true even for an apparatus instead of circuit B.

z A linear 2-terminal circuit with sources and resistors

EG1108 Electrical Engineering / Dr. Abdullah Al Mamun 22

z Open circuit condition

z Short circuit condition

z Open circuit condition

z Short circuit condition a

z Steps to determining the equivalent circuit:

Thevenin Equivalent: Norton Equivalent:

z Remove R from the branch you are interested

z Replace R by a short circuit

z There are 3 methods for determining RT or RN.

EG1108 Electrical Engineering / Dr. Abdullah Al Mamun 25