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Toxicology Letters
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a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Graphene and its derivatives have attracted great research interest for their potential applications in
Received 28 July 2010 electronics, energy, materials and biomedical areas. However, little information of their toxicity and bio-
Received in revised form 11 October 2010 compatibility is available. Herein, we performed a comprehensive study on the toxicity of graphene oxide
Accepted 24 November 2010
(GO) by examining the influences of GO on the morphology, viability, mortality and membrane integrity
Available online 2 December 2010
of A549 cells. The results suggest that GO does not enter A549 cell and has no obvious cytotoxicity. But
GO can cause a dose-dependent oxidative stress in cell and induce a slight loss of cell viability at high
Keywords:
concentration. These effects are dose and size related, and should be considered in the development of
Graphene oxide
Biocompatibility
bio-applications of GO. Overall, GO is a pretty safe material at cellular level, which is confirmed by the
Toxicity favorable cell growth on GO film.
Size effect © 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Cell growth substrate
1. Introduction 2007; Jia et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2004, 2008, 2009a, 2009c; Yang
et al., 2008a, 2008b, 2009a). The thorough understanding of the
Because of their unique physicochemical properties, graphene biological behavior of nanomaterials guarantees the sustainable
and its derivatives have attracted tremendous research interest nanotechnology (Aillon et al., 2009; Hussain et al., 2009; Nel et al.,
(Allen et al., 2010; Geim, 2009; Rao et al., 2009). They hold great 2006; Oberdörster et al., 2005; Xia et al., 2009). However, for the
promise in electronics, energy, materials and biomedical areas newly developed graphene and its derivatives, such information is
(Allen et al., 2010; Geim, 2009; Neto et al., 2009; Rao et al., 2009). generally lacking to date.
Graphene oxide (GO) is one of the most important graphene deriva- Herein, we performed a systematic study on the toxicity of GO
tives and has been extensively studied in recent years (Park and at cell level. The morphology, viability, mortality and membrane
Ruoff, 2009). We reported that GO could be used to produce directly integrity of A549 cells, a human lung carcinoma epithelial cell line,
the graphene-based composites (Cao et al., 2010). Beyond that, were evaluated after GO exposure. The results suggest that, GO has
GO has been also used in many areas, including hydrogen storage no obvious toxicity to A549 cells, though GO induces the cellu-
(Wang et al., 2009b), catalysis (Scheuermann et al., 2009), trans- lar oxidative stress even at low concentration and induce a slight
parent film (Dikin et al., 2007) and electrode (Eda et al., 2008). decrease of the cell viability at high concentration. The transmission
In particular, GO is a potential candidate for biological applica- electron microscopy (TEM) investigation suggests that GO could
tions, such as drug delivery and bio-analysis (Liu et al., 2008; Lu hardly enter cells. The size of GO sheets has effect on the toxicity of
et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2009b, 2010; Zhang et al., GO at high concentration, that is larger sheets have better biocom-
2010a). For example, Liu et al. (2008) found that GO could deliver patibility. The good biocompatibility of GO allows it to be used for
doxorubicin into cancer cells for the therapeutic purpose. various biomedical purposes in future. Preliminarily, we show the
Many studies have shown that nanomaterials might have side- GO film is a good substrate for cell growth.
effects on health (Aillon et al., 2009; Oberdörster et al., 2005; Xia
et al., 2009). For instance, we have reported the toxicity and reten- 2. Materials and methods
tion of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in vitro and in vivo (Deng et al.,
2.1. Preparation and characterization of GO
Natural graphite powder (≤30 m, with purity higher than 99.85 wt.%) was
purchased from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., China. The preparation
∗ Corresponding authors. Fax: +86 21 66135275. of GO followed the modified Hummer method (Hummers and Offerman, 1958;
E-mail addresses: ancao@shu.edu.cn (A. Cao), hwang@shu.edu.cn (H. Wang). Kovtyukhova et al., 1999), which is described in Supplementary Data. The obtained
0378-4274/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.11.016
202 Y. Chang et al. / Toxicology Letters 200 (2011) 201–210
Go suspension was further heated to 120 ◦ C for 20 min to get GO mixture (m-GO). 2.6. Membrane integrity
After cooling to room temperature, the suspension was centrifuged at 18,000 rpm
for 50 min to obtain the s-GO (supernatant, GO with smaller size) and l-GO (residue, LDH test-kit (CytoTox 96® Non-Radioactive Cytotoxicity Assay, Promega Co.)
GO with larger size) samples. was used to assess the cell membrane integrity. A549 cells were plated in the 96-well
The three GO samples were characterized by TEM (JEM-200CX, JEOL, Japan), plates (5 × 103 cells per well) and incubated for 24 h. GO samples were introduced
atomic force microscopy (AFM, SPM-9600, Shimadzu, Japan), Fourier transform separately to the cells with different concentrations (10, 25, 50, 100 and 200 g/mL)
infrared spectroscopy (FTIR, Avatar 370, Thermo Nicolet, USA), Raman spectroscopy and incubated for another 24 h. The positive control was prepared by adding 10 L
(Renishaw Invia Plus laser Raman spectrometer, Renishaw, UK) and X-ray photo- of lysis solution to the control cells at 45 min prior to the centrifugation. Then,
electron spectroscopy (XPS, AXIS Ultra instrument, Kratos, UK). The particle size the centrifugation (1200 rpm × 5 min) was performed. One hundred microlitres of
distribution and zeta potential in water were measured by Nanosizer (Zetasizer supernatant was taken out from each well for LDH assay following the instruction
3000 HS, Malvern, UK). of the kit. The absorbance at 490 nm was recorded on a Microplate Reader (Thermo,
GO were dispersed in ultra-pure water to prepare the stock solution (1.0 mg/mL). Varioskan Flash). The LDH leakage (% of positive control) is expressed as the percent-
The stock solution was sonicated for 1 h (40 kHz, 50 W) and diluted to different age of (ODtest − ODblank )/(ODpositive − ODblank ), where ODtest is the optical density of
concentrations with F-12K culture medium just prior to the cell exposure. the control cells or cells exposed to GO, ODpositive is the optical density of the positive
control cells and ODblank is the optical density of the wells without A549 cells.
A549 cell line is one popular cell line in nanotoxicology studies with a cell cycle Apoptosis kit (FITC Annexin V Apoptosis Detection Kit I, BD Biosciences, USA)
time of 22 h (Pulskamp et al., 2007; Herzog et al., 2007). A549 cells were kindly was employed to detect apoptotic and necrotic cells. The manual of the kit was
provided by Dr. Y. Zhong at Shanghai University, China. A549 cells were cultured in strictly followed. Briefly, A549 cells were plated in the 6-well plates (1 × 105 cells
F-12K culture medium supplemented with 10% (v/v) fetal bovine serum (Lanzhou per well) and incubated for 24 h. The GO samples were introduced to the cells at
National Hyclone Bio-Engineering Co. Ltd., China) at 37 ◦ C in a humidified atmo- different concentrations (10, 100 and 200 g/mL) and incubated for another 24 h.
sphere of 5% CO2 /95% air. The positive control was prepared by culturing the control cells in medium con-
taining 200 mM H2 O2 for 30 min. A549 cells were collected, washed twice with cold
D-hanks buffer solution, and re-suspended in binding buffer (1 × 106 cells/mL). After
2.3. Cell morphology and ultrastructure 100 L of A549 cells was transferred to a tube, 5 L of FITC-conjugated Annexin V
(Annexin V-FITC) and 5 L of propidium iodide (PI) were added followed by incuba-
A549 cells were plated in the 96-well plates (5 × 103 cells per well) and incu- tion for 15 min at room temperature in the dark. The stained A549 cells were diluted
bated for 24 h. m-GO, s-GO and l-GO were introduced separately to cells with a by the binding buffer and directly analyzed by the fluorescence-activated cell sort-
predetermined concentration in culture medium. Cells cultured in the medium ing method (FACS, FACSCalibur, BD Biosciences, USA). The cells were set as positive
without adding GO were taken as the control. The cell morphology was recorded depending on the fluorescence intensity of Annexin V-FITC or PI. The positive of
under an optical microscopy at 24 h postexposure. Annexin V-FITC indicates the out-releasing of phospholipid phosphatidylserine (PS),
To investigate the cellular ultrastructure of GO-treated A549 cells, thin-sections which happens in the early stage of apoptosis. The positive of PI indicates the dam-
of cells were investigated under TEM. A549 cells were plated in the 6-well plates age of cell membrane, which occurs either in the end stage of apoptosis, in necrosis
(1 × 105 cells per well) and incubated for 24 h. GO samples were introduced to the or in dead cells. Therefore, the apoptotic cells were identified as Annexin V-FITC+
cells with a final concentration of 200 g/mL. Cells without GO exposure were taken and PI− . The nonviable cells were identified as Annexin V-FITC+ and PI+ and viable
as the control. After 24 h exposure, the cells were washed with ice-cold PBS for three cells as Annexin V-FITC− and PI− .
times. After the centrifugation (4000 rpm × 10 min), cells were collected, prefixed
with 2.5% glutaraldehyde, post-fixed in 1% osmium tetroxide, dehydrated in a graded
2.8. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay
alcohol series, embedded in epoxy resin, and cut with an ultramicrotome. Thin-
sections poststained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate were inspected with TEM.
The oxidant-sensitive dye DCFH-DA was used for ROS detection (Reactive Oxy-
gen Species Assay Kit, Beyotime Institute of Biotechnology, China). A549 cells were
plated in the 96-well plates (5 × 103 cells per well) and incubated for 24 h. GO sam-
2.4. Cell viability ples were introduced to the cells with different concentrations (10, 25, 50, 100
and 200 g/mL) and incubated for another 24 h. The positive controls were pre-
The cell viability was evaluated by CCK-8 assay (Dojindo Molecular Technolo- pared by culturing the normal cells with culture medium containing 200 mM H2 O2
gies, Inc.). A549 cells were plated in the 96-well plates (5 × 103 cells per well) and at 1 h prior to the addition of DCFH-DA probe. Then, the culture medium for all
incubated for 24 h. m-GO, s-GO and l-GO were introduced separately to cells with cells was replaced by 100 L of new culture medium containing 20 M DCFH-DA.
different test concentrations (10, 25, 50, 100 and 200 g/mL) in culture medium. The cells were washed with D-Hanks buffer solution for three times 1 h later. After
Cells cultured in the medium without adding GO were taken as the control. After adding 100 L of D-Hanks buffer solution to each well, the fluorescence intensity
24, 48 and 72 h incubation, the cells were washed with D-Hanks buffer solution. was monitored by a Microplate Reader. The ROS level is expressed as the ratio of
Two hundred microlitres of CCK-8 solution was added to each well and incubated (Ftest − Fblank )/(Fcontrol − Fblank ), where Ftest is the fluorescence intensity of the cells
for an additional 3 h at 37 ◦ C. The optical density (OD) of each well at 450 nm was exposed to GO or the positive control, Fcontrol is the fluorescence intensity of the
recorded on a Microplate Reader (Thermo, Varioskan Flash). The cell viability (% control cells and Fblank is the fluorescence intensity of the wells without A549 cells.
of control) is expressed as the percentage of (ODtest − ODblank )/(ODcontrol − ODblank ), In order to test the ROS generation of GO in culture medium (cell free), the GO
where ODtest is the optical density of the cells exposed to GO sample, ODcontrol is the samples (0, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 200 g/mL) were incubated in F-12K medium sup-
optical density of the control sample and ODblank is the optical density of the wells plemented with 10% (v/v) fetal bovine serum for 24 h. The ROS level was measured
without A549 cells. following the protocol developed by Lu et al. (2009). Briefly, 0.1 mM DCFH-DA was
In a separate experiment, to test the effect of the adsorption of culture medium chemically hydrolyzed to 2 , 7 -dichlorofluorescein (DCFH) at pH 7.0 with 0.01 M
by GO on the toxicity, the GO samples (10, 25, 50, 100 and 200 g/mL) were incu- NaOH at room temperature (30 min in the dark). The chemical reaction was stopped
bated in culture medium (cell-free) at 37 ◦ C under 5% CO2 /95% air for 24 h. Then, the by adding 200 L PBS. After adding 50 L DCFH solution to GO in culture medium,
mixtures were centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 5 min to remove precipitate (GO). The the mixture was incubated at 37 ◦ C for 1 h and centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 5 min.
GO free supernatants were collected and introduced to A549 cells (5 × 103 cells per The fluorescence generated by the DCFH oxidation was measured on a Microplate
well). After 24 h incubation, the cell viability was assayed by CCK-8 assay. Reader.
Fig. 1. Characterization of GO samples. (a–c) AFM images of l-GO (a), s-GO (b) and m-GO (c); (d) Raman spectra of l-GO, s-GO and m-GO.
Fig. 2. Optical microscopy images of GO-treated A549 cells. (a) l-GO; (b) s-GO; (c) m-GO; (d) the control.
Fig. 4. The viability of A549 cells after exposed to the supernatant of GO pre-
incubated medium for 24 h. Fig. 6. The influence of GO on the membrane integrity of A549 cells.
The ultra-section of A549 cells was observed under TEM for the
uptake of GO and the changes of ultrastructure. All GO treated cells
show similar structures to the control cells (Fig. 8). GO exposure
does not have any obvious impact on the ultrastructure of A549
cells. We did not find any GO sheets inside cells, either.
Fig. 7. FACS results of the Annexin V-FITC and PI assay. (a–d) Scatter diagrams of cells exposed to 200 g/mL of l-GO (a), s-GO (b), m-GO (c) and the negative control (d). (e
and f) The summary of the apoptosis rate (e) and necrosis rate (f) of A549 cells after exposed to GO for 24 h.
shows high ability in generating ROS. At 200 g/mL, the fluores- dark brown color of GO film, the contrast of Fig. 11a is not as good
cence intensity from l-GO sample is 50% higher than that from s-GO as that of the control.
or m-GO.
4. Discussion
3.9. Cell growth on GO substrate
Nanomaterials have unique physicochemical properties and are
The cells grow very well on the GO film. The density and mor- applied in various areas. However, their biological properties in
phology of the cells cultured on GO film are comparative to those organisms will finally determine their destiny in future. Com-
of the cells cultured in normal culture dish (Fig. 11). The thickness pared to available results of carbon based nanomaterials, such as
of the GO film is around several tens of micrometers. Due to the fullerene, CNT, carbon nanofibre and carbon nanoparticle (Jia et al.,
Y. Chang et al. / Toxicology Letters 200 (2011) 201–210 207
Fig. 8. TEM images of the m-GO treated A549 cells (a) and the control cells (b).
2005; Lewinski et al., 2008; Lindberg et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2010;
Tian et al., 2006), our results indicate that GO has pretty good bio-
compatibility to A549 cells.
A systematic study was performed to evaluate the toxic-
ity/biocompatibility of GO to A549 cell, a widely used model cell
line for the toxicity study. The results collectively indicate that GO is
highly biocompatible, which is consistent with the GO drug delivery
studies (Liu et al., 2008; Lu et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2008; Yang et al.,
2009b; Zhang et al., 2010a). In addition to the literature reporting
the good biocompatibility of GO, there is literature reporting that
GO has higher toxicity to cells and animals at high concentrations Fig. 10. GO induced ROS generation in F-12K culture medium.
(Agarwal et al., 2010; Hu et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2010). For exam-
ple, Wang et al. found that GO is toxic to human fibroblast cells at
the concentration of 50 g/mL and higher. The inconsistency might without obvious toxicity. Our study suggests that GO could be used
come from the GO synthesis/film preparation, and the testing mod- as the cell growth substrate.
els. The good biocompatibility of GO sheets is also reflected by the CNT is the closest material of graphene (Geim and Novoselov,
cell growth on GO film. Unlike Agarwal’s report (Agarwal et al., 2007). The toxicity of CNTs is heavily influenced by their function-
2010), we found that A549 cells grew very well on the GO film alization degree (Sayes et al., 2006). For example, carboxylation
208 Y. Chang et al. / Toxicology Letters 200 (2011) 201–210
At low dose, GO induces ROS generation, but no obvious toxicity is Herzog, E., Casey, A., Lyng, F.M., Chambers, G., Byrne, H.J., Davoren, M., 2007. A new
observed. Similarly, oxidative stress was observed while no toxic- approach to the toxicity testing of carbon-based nanomaterials—the clonogenic
assay. Toxicol. Lett. 174, 49–60.
ity of CNTs to cells presented in Pulskamp et al.’s study (Pulskamp Hu, W., Peng, C., Luo, W., Lv, M., Li, X., Li, D., Huang, Q., Fan, C., 2010. Graphene-based
et al., 2007). The oxidative stress may contribute to the slight via- antibacterial paper. ACS Nano 4, 4317–4323.
bility decrease of GO at high concentration. The oxidative stress Hummers Jr., W.S., Offerman, R.E., 1958. Preparation of graphitic oxide. J. Am. Chem.
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induced by GO is moderately low when comparing to fullerene and Hussain, S.M., Braydich-Stolle, L.K., Schrand, A.M., Murdock, R.C., Yu, K.O., Mat-
CNTs (Lewinski et al., 2008). Further, ROS generate when incubat- tie, D.M., Schlager, J.J., Terrones, M., 2009. Toxicity evaluation for safe use of
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GO concentration depended. Hence, the intracellular ROS is most Jia, G., Wang, H., Yan, L., Wang, X., Pei, R., Yan, T., Zhao, Y., Guo, X., 2005. Cytotox-
likely induced by the external ROS. To make such a mechanism icity of carbon nanomaterials: single-wall nanotube, multi-wall nanotube and
clear, more efforts are required. fullerene. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 1378–1383.
Jin, H., Heller, D.A., Sharma, R., Strano, M.S., 2009. Size-dependent cellular uptake
and expulsion of single-walled carbon nanotubes: single particle tracking and a
5. Conclusions generic uptake model for nanoparticles. ACS Nano 3, 149–158.
Kovtyukhova, N.I., Ollivier, P.J., Martin, B.R., Mallouk, T.E., Chizhik, S.A., Buzaneva,
E.V., Gorchinskiy, A.D., 1999. Layer-by-layer assembly of ultrathin composite
In summary, the toxicity of GO to A549 cells was evaluated by films from micron-sized graphite oxide sheets and polycations. Chem. Mater.
various cytotoxicity methods. GO hardly enters cells and shows 11, 771–778.
good biocompatibility. GO has potential being the substrate for the Lewinski, N., Colvin, V., Drezek, R., 2008. Cytotoxicity of nanoparticles. Small 4,
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GO on A549 cells is dose and size related. Our results are essential nanoparticles. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 44, 1689–1699.
Li, W., Chen, C., Ye, C., Wei, T., Zhao, Y., Lao, F., Chen, Z., Meng, H., Gao, Y., Yuan, H.,
for the biomedical applications and safety assessment of GO and
Xing, G., Zhao, F., Chai, Z., Zhang, X., Yang, F., Han, D., Tang, X., Zhang, Y., 2008b.
would stimulate more toxicology evaluations of graphene and its The translocation of fullerenic nanoparticles into lysosome via the pathway of
derivatives. clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Nanotechnology 19, 145102.
Lindberg, H.K., Falck, G.C.-M., Suhonen, S., Vippola, M., Vanhala, E., Catalán, J.,
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Conflict of interest and micronuclei induced by carbon nanotubes and graphite nanofibres in human
bronchial epithelial cells in vitro. Toxicol. Lett. 186, 166–173.
Liu, J.-H., Anilkumar, P., Cao, L., Wang, X., Yang, S.-T., Luo, P.G., Wang, H., Lu, F.,
There are no conflicts of interest. Meziani, M.J., Liu, Y., Korch, K., Sun, Y.-P., 2010. Cytotoxicity evaluations of flu-
orescent carbon nanoparticles. Nano Life 1, 153–161.
Liu, J., Yang, L., Hopfinger, A.J., 2009. Affinity of drugs and small biologically active
Acknowledgements
molecules to carbon nanotubes: a pharmacodynamics and nanotoxicity factor?
Mol. Pharm. 6, 873–882.
We acknowledge financial support from the China Nat- Liu, Z., Robinson, J.T., Sun, X., Dai, H., 2008. PEGylated nanographene oxide for deliv-
ery of water-insoluble cancer drugs. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, 10876–10877.
ural Science Foundation (No. 21071094), the National Basic
Lu, C.H., Zhu, C.L., Li, J., Liu, J.J., Chen, X., Yang, H.H., 2010. Using graphene to protect
Research Program of China (973 Program Nos. 2011CB933402 and DNA from cleavage during cellular delivery. Chem. Commun. 46, 3116–3118.
2009CB930200), Shanghai MEC (11ZZ82) and Shanghai Leading Lu, S., Duffin, R., Poland, C., Daly, P., Murphy, F., Drost, E., MacNee, W., Stone, V.,
Academic Disciplines (S30109). Donaldson, K., 2009. Efficacy of simple short-term in vitro assays for predicting
the potential of metal oxide nanoparticles to cause pulmonary inflammation.
Environ. Health Perspect. 117, 241–247.
Appendix A. Supplementary data Nel, A., Xia, T., Mädler, L., Li, N., 2006. Toxic potential of materials at the nanolevel.
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Neto, A.H.C., Guinea, F., Peres, N.M.R., Novoselov, K.S., Geim, A.K., 2009. The electronic
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the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.11.016. Oberdörster, G., Oberdörster, E., Oberdörster, J., 2005. Nanotoxicology: an emerging
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