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2Sn
u1 ..
un
n
2Sn
n .
u1 .
un
Geometric Sequences
Definition: A geometric sequence is a sequence in which each term can be obtaine
d from
the previous one by multiplying by the same non-zero constant.
u
n.1 .
{un} is geometric if and only if .
r, n ..
where r is a constant.
un
Information Booklet
n.1
un .
u1r
Proof:
u
n.1 .
r
un
.ur .
u
nn.1
u
.un .
n.1
r
.u 1 .
urn
n.
1
n.1
.un .
u1r
Derivations:
un
u .
1 n.1
r
1
n.1
.
un .
r .
..
..
u
.
1 .
un
n .
logr.1 (non-calculator paper)
u
1
un
log
u
n .
1 .1 (calculator paper)
log r
Compound Interest:
100% .
i%
u 1 .
u rn , where u1 .
initial investment, r .
, i .
interest rate per
n.
1
100%
compounding period, n = number of periods and un.1 .
amount after n periods.
Information Booklet
nn
u1 .r .1.
u1 .1.
r .
Sn ..
, r . 1
r .11.
r
Proof:
Sn = u1 + u2 + u3 + + un-1 + un
= u1 + u1r + u1r2 + u1r3 + + u1rn-2 + u1rn-1
n
.rSn = (u1r + u1r2 + u1r2 + u1r3 + u1r4 + + u1rn-1) + u1r
.rSn = (Sn -
u1) + u1rn
.rSn -
Sn = u1rn -
u1
.Sn(r - 1) = u1(rn - 1)
n
u1 .r .1.
.
Sn .
.r .1.
Derivations
u .
Sn .r .1.
1 n
r .1
..r .1.Sn .
log..
..
u
.
1 .
n .
log r
Sn r .1 23 n.3 n.2 n.
.
n
..1.
r .
r .
r .
... .
r .
r .
r 1 .
u1 r .1
Sum to infinity
1
S..
u ,
r .
1
1.
r
Proof:
n
u1 .1.
r .
Sn .
, r .
1,
1.
r
.
r ..
0,
r .
1
u1 .1.
0.
.
S..
,
r .
1
1.
r
1
.
S..
u ,
r .
1
1.
r
Sigma Notation
n
.
f (n)
r.1
n is the number of terms, f(n) is the general term and r = the first n value in
the sequence.
.represents the sum of these the terms in this progression.
Chapter 1.2 Exponents and logarithms. Laws of exponents; laws of logarithms.
Change of base.
y yx
Definition of Exponents: ax
means .a ., i.e. the numerator in an exponent is the power
to which a number is raised and the denominator is the root to which it is lower
ed.
Laws of Exponents
y
x xy
..a .a
xy x.y
a .a .a
a0 .1
.11
a .
a
Definition of Logarithms: logax .y means ay .x .
Notes:
ln x .logex, where e is the unique real number such that the function ex has the
same
value as the slope of the tangent line, for all values of x.
y xy
logab .x .a .b
x
x
.ay .b .logab .
y
.y logab .x .logaby
.logaby .y logab
x .logaa .ax .a
.x .1
.logaa .1
log x
a
a .b .logax .logab
.b .x
log b
a
.a .b
x log x
a
THEREFORE logaa .x .a
Other Significant Equations
x .
x ln a
ae
Proof:
x ln a ln a
e .
ex
.
ax
xx ln a
.a .
e
Other Significant Equations
logca
log a .b logcb
Proof:
logba .
x
.bx .
a
.logc bx .
logca
.
x logcb .
logca
log a
.
x .
c
logcb
logca
.logba .
logcb
Laws of Logarithms
logn ab .
logna .
lognb
Proof:
logna .
lognb .
x
.logna .
x .
lognb
x.log b
n
.n .
a
nx
..
a
log b
nn
nx
..
a
b
.nx .
ab
.lognnx .
logn ab
.
x .
logn ab
.logn ab .
logna .
lognb
Laws of Logarithms
log ab .
log a .
log b
n nn
Proof:
logna .
lognb .
x
.logna .
x .
lognb
x.log b
n
.n .
a
x log b
.n .
nn .
a
.bnx .
a
xa
.n .
b
xa
.lognn .
lognb
a
.
x .
logn
b
a
.logn .
logna .
lognb
b
Chapter 1.3 Counting principles, including permutations and combinations. The
binomial theorem: expansion of .a .
b.n , n .
.
The Product Principle
If there are m different ways of performing an operation and for each of these t
here are n
different ways of performing a second independent operation, then there are mn d
ifferent
ways of performing the two operations in succession.
The number of different ways of performing an operation is equal to the sum of t
he
different mutually exclusive possibilities.
Factorial Notation
n!is the product of the first n positive integers for n .
1.
n!.
n(n .1)!.
n(n .1)(n .
2)!.
n(n .1)(n .
2)(n .
3)!.
etc
.1!.
1(1.1)!.
1.
0!
.0!.
1
Permutations (in a line)
A permutation of a group of symbols is any arrangement of those symbols in a def
inite
order.
Explanation: Assume you have n different symbols and therefore n places to fill
in your
arrangement. For the first place, there are n different possibilities. For the s
econd place,
no matter what was put in the first place, there are n .1 possible symbols to pl
ace, for the
rth place there are n.
r .1 possible places until the point where r = n, at which point we
have saturated all the places. According to the product principle, therefore, we
have n .
(n .1) .
(n .
2) .
(n .
3) .....1different arrangements, or n!
If symbols are fixed in place, revert to the product principle. Since there is o
nly one
possibility for whichever place the symbol(s) is fixed at, the number of possibi
lities is
n!
equal to where r is the place at which that symbol is fixed.
n .
r .1
Permutations (in a circle)
The best way to think of permutations in a circle is as permutations in a line w
here you
have to divide the normal total number of possibilities for permutations in a li
ne by the
number of different identical positions the symbols can have where they have sim
ply
shifted to the right by one place. Logically, there are n different positions wh
ere this is
n!
the case thus the number of possibilities is equal to .
(n .1)!.
n
Combinations
A combination is a selection of objects without regard to order or arrangement.
nn .n.
C .
C .
C .. .
..
..
is the number of combinations on n distinct symbols taken r at a
nrr r
r
..
time.
Since the combination does not take into account the order, we have to divide th
e
permutation of the total number of symbols available by the number of redundant
possibilities. Since we are choosing a particular number of symbols r, these sym
bols have
a number of redundancies equal to the permutation of the symbols (since order do
esn t
matter). However, we also need to divide the permutation n! by the permutation o
f the
symbols that are not selected, that is to say n .
r .
.
n!.
..
.
r!.
n! .n.
.
...
..
..
.n .
r.! r!.n .
r.! .
r .
Binomial Expansion
Taking each term in the expansion of .a .
b.n , n .
The constant term is the term containing no variables, often br. See H&H p.215 e
xample
18.
When finding the coefficient of xn, always consider the set of all terms contain
ing xn (see
H&H p.215 example 19).
Chapter 1.4 Proof by mathematical induction. Forming conjectures to be proved by
mathematical induction.
Ninety percent of the points for mathematical induction questions can be obtaine
d simply
by using the correct form, so it is very important to memorise the two forms of
mathematical induction and lay the proof out accordingly.
The Principle of Mathematical Induction
Suppose Pnis a proposition which is defined for every integer n .a, a .
. Now if Pais true, and Pk .1 is true whenever Pk is true, then Pn is true for a
ll n .a.
Sums of Series
First step: Prove that P1 is true if proving for all n .
+, or that P0 is true if proving for
n .
(including 0).
Second step: Assume that Pk is true, and state the consequences of this assumpti
on.
Third step: Using the assumption, manipulate your equation (the general equation
for k
terms + the (k+1)th term) to give you the general equation where the variable k
has been
replaced by k+1 wherever it appears.
Final step, state: Thus Pk .1 is true whenever Pk is true. Since P1 is true, Pn
is true for all
[aforementioned set of numbers].
Note: Always look for common factors.
Divisibility
n is divisible by s for
Prove that f..n .
, n .r
First step: Prove that Pr is true where r is your lower limit for which Pk is tr
ue.
Second Step: Assume that Pk is true: f .k..sA where A is an integer.
.bi .di .c .a
..b .d .i .c .a
c .a
.i .
b .d
c .a
Therefore the statement b .d must be false since i is imaginary and is real,
b .d
therefore b .d .a .c.
Conjugates
The conjugate of a complex number z .a .ib, is a .ib .z *. In other words, compl
ex
conjugates are complex numbers z where the sign of the imaginary part is inverte
d.
Properties:
*
*
...z
z
** *
.z1 .z ..z1 .z2 and .z1 .z ..z1 .z
2 22
*
*
** .z1 .
z1
As is demonstrated above, the real part can be said to be equal to rcos. and the
coefficient of the imaginary part can be said to be equal to rsin.. Thus, the co
mplex
number z can be expressed as z .
r cos..
ir sin..
r.cos..
isin...
rcis.
. This is
known as the polar, or modulus-argument form.
Note: The modulus r of a complex number is the magnitude of its unit vector on a
n
Argand diagram. As such, it can also be written as
z
and is equal to a .
b (from the
complex number as expressed in Cartesian form).
Note: The argument of any complex number z can be expressed as arg z rather than
..
Notes (all these are easily proven so proofs shall not be made):
*
z
.
z
*
2
z
.
zz
z
z
1
1
zz
.
z
z
and
.
, z2 .
0
12
1
2
z
z
2
2
n
zz z ....z
.
z
z
z
.... zn
and
zn
.
z
, n .
+
123 n
1
2
3
.
cis..
...
cis.
cis..
.
k2...
cis., k .
Converting between Cartesian and Polar Form
z .a .bi .r cos..ir sin.
.a .r cos., b .r sin.
b
...arctan (from Argand diagram)
a
.r .
a .b (from Argand diagram)
Chapter 1.6 Sums, products and quotients of complex numbers.
Operations with complex numbers are identical to those for radicals.
..bi..
di .a .c...b .di
a .c ...
.
..bi..
di ..c..
.
.di
a .c ...
ab .
2
..bi.c .di..ac .adi .bci .bdi .ac .bd ..
.bc i
a .
..ad .
a .bi .a .bi ..c .di ..ac .adi .bci .bdi2 ..ac .bd ..bc .ad ...
..
....
22 ..
..22 ...22 .i
c .di .c .di ..c .di ..
c .d ..c .d ..c .d .
arg z ..
arg zn .n.
1
z1 .r cis....
zr
22
z .z .rr cis.....
12 12
b
..arctan
a
Proof by mathematical induction for De Moivre s Theorem:
n
cis...
z
n cis n.
Required to prove that: .z
n
P1: If n .1, then .z
cis..1 .
z
cis1....P1 is true.
Assume Pk is true ..z
cis..k .
z
k cis k.
.z
cis..k .
z
cis.
.
z
k cis...
k .
z
cis.
Pk+1:
k .1
.
z
cis.k....
k .1
.
z
cis.k .1..
zn .
c
n
.
z .
rcis..
.
2k..
.
z ..rcis..
.
2k.
..1
n
1 ..
2k.
n ..
.
z .
r cis..,k .
0,1,..., n-1
.
n .
Note: the nth roots of unity are the solutions of zn = 1
Chapter 1.8 Conjugate roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients.
Real Polynomials
A real polynomial is a polynomial with only real coefficients:
Polynomials Degree Name
0, ..
abax 1 Linear
0, 2 ...
acbxax 2 Quadratic
0, 23 ....
adcxbxax 3 Cubic
0, 23 ....
adcxbxax 4 Quartic
0,.... 11
2
3
1
21 ......
.
..
kkxkk xk xk x nn
nnn n (General)
a, b, c, d, e, k .
a or k1 is the leading coefficient and the term not containing the variable x is
the constant
term (as stated above).
Polynomial Multiplication
Every term in the first polynomial must be multiplied by every term in the other
.
Algorithm: Synthetic multiplication detach coefficients and multiply as in ordin
ary
multiplication of large numbers
32
Example: .ax .
bx .
cx .
d ..ex .
f .
ab cd
.
ef
af bf cf df
ae be ce de 0
ae beaf .
cebf .
decf .
df
43210
xxxxx
32 432
..ax .
bx .
cx .
d ..ex .
f ..
aex ..af .
be.x ..bf .
ce.x ..cf .
de.x .
df
Polynomial Division
Division Algorithm: H&H p.170 LEARN (it s hell to type out on word)
If ..is divided by ax .
Pxb until a constant remainder R is obtained:
..
R
Px
.Q(x).
where ax .b is the divisor, P(x) is the polynomial, Q(x) is the
ax .b ax .b
quotient and R is the remainder.
Derivations:
..
.
.
ax .
.
..
.R
Px bQx
...R
Px
...
Qx
ax .b
P..
.
x ax .
...
R ..
bQ x
P..x .R
ax .b .
..
Qx
Roots and Zeros
A zero of a polynomial is a value of the variable which makes the polynomial equ
al to
zero (x-axis intercept). The roots of a polynomial equation are values of the va
riable
which satisfy the equation in question.
The roots of ...0 are the zeros of Px .
Px ..
2a 2a 2a
.
2 ..
2 .
2 b .
b .4ac b .
b .4ac
.
..
.
.ax .bx .c .
x .
x .
.
2a ..
2a .
.
..
.
b .
b2 .4ac 2*
If z .
, ax .bx .c ..x .z..x .z ..0, z .
2a
z and z * are conjugate roots of ax2 .bx .c .0
For polynomials of even degree, every root has a conjugate root, for polynomials
of odd
degree, every root except one has a conjugate root.
Every polynomial of degree n has n roots, but where there is a factor x .0 , the
polynomial has repeated roots.
f() Chapter 2.1 Concept of function f: xf: x.
x: domain, range; image (value).
Composite functions f.
g; identity function. Inverse function f.1.
Algebraic Test: If a relation is given as an equation, and the substitution of a
ny value for
xresults in one and only one value of y, we have a function. (Note that the alge
braic test
can be used as a definition for what a function is).
Geometric Test: If at any point along the x-axis, there are two y-axis values, t
he graph is
not a function.
In composite functions, the right-most function is a function of x and those tha
t aren t are
merely functions of the functions the right of it. That is to say that if you de
fine a
function f.x. as a relationship given as an equation where the substitution of a
ny value
for x results in one and only one value of y, the definition of the function
gfx gfx:..
.
.. is a relationship given as an equation where the substitution for any
.
The domain of a relation is the set of permissible values that x may have.
The range of a relation is the set of permissible values that y may have.
Note: The stated domain and range of the relation in question must be applied be
fore it is
determined whether or not this relation constitutes a function.
Interval Notation
xa...x: xa .
xa ..
,
.
..
.
..yya ..
ya .: .
..
.
.
ya ,
xa...x: xa .
x..., .
.
..a
.yya .
...
y..., a.
ya..
:
.xx: ..
x
.
..
.
.yy.
..
.
.
: .
y
...
..
axb .x:2...
..
xb .
xa,b
...
..
ayb .y:2...
..
yb .
ya,b
[a means that a is the lower limit and that xcan equal a
]a means that a is the upper limit and that xcan t equal a
b] means that b is the upper limit and that xcan equal b
b[ means that b is the upper limit and that xcan t equal b.
] ..,.[where there is no limit on one side, .must be excluded in the notation.
Inverse functions
Where a function f.x. substitutes x values for a different value, the inverse fu
nction
f.1 .. is the function that substitutes values. Graphically, the inverse
xf.x.values for xof a function is that function reflected in the line y.x.
As a direct result of this, any function in which more than one x value is subst
ituted to the
same value of y (called a many-to-one function) has no inverse. This is represen
ted
graphically by the horizontal bar test, where if you can draw a line parallel to
the x-axis
that crosses the function more than once, the function has no inverse (if the co
nverse is
true, then the function is a one-to-one function). Otherwise stated, one-to-one
functions
have an inverse whereas many-to-one functions do not. The domain must be taken i
nto
account when categorising a function as one-to-one rather than many-to-one, for
example
.
..
...sin x then the
fx appears to be a many-to-one function, but if the domain is 0,
..
.
2 .
function is a one-to-one function and has an inverse.
Chapter 2.2 The graph of a function; its equation ... Function graphing skills:
y.fx
use of a GDC to graph a variety of functions, investigation of key features of g
raphs,
solutions of equations graphically.
When functions are graphed, the function f.x. is always represented on the yaxis
.
The asymptote is an xor y value for which there is defined value of the function
,
generally appearing where the denominator in the function has gone to 0.
The roots or equations (or zeros of functions) can be found graphically by notin
g the
points at which the function crosses the xaxis. For the solution to two equation
s
represented as functions as f.x. and gx respectively where fx..
..
...gx, the
solution(s) can be found at the intercept(s) of the two functions.
Chapter 2.3 Transformations of graphs: translations; stretches; reflections in t
he axes.
The graph of y.f.1 .. as the reflection in the line y.xof the graph of ...
xy.fx
The graph of y from y.fx
.1
..
... The graphs of the absolute value functions,
fx
y.fx
and ...
y.fx
..
Transformations:
... translates the graph b direction.
y.fx b units in the positive y
... translates the graph a direction.
y.fxa units in the positive x
() stretches the graph parallel to the y-axis with factor p
y.pfx.
..
x
yf stretches the graph parallel to the x-axis with factor q.
...
q
..
y...
-axis.
..fx reflects the graph in the xy.f.
.
.x reflects the graph in the y-axis.
If given f..x and required to graph 1 , realise where the graph of f()x gets
fx
..
y
y
xn
.
xn , n.Z
x.y
.
x
.
y
x.y.
x
.
y
x.a
ax .bx ..
ax ..c
..
.
a .
.
2 .
b ..
b .2 .
b .2 .
..
ax .2x .
...c
.
..
..
.
..
.2a ..
2a ..2a .
..
.
2 .
2 .
b ..
b .
b2
ax .2x .
..c
...
.
..
.
..2a ..
2a ..
4a
..
2
.
b .2 b 2
.ax .
..
ca .x .h..k
..
.
.
2a .
4a
bb2
.
..
, .
..
h ck
2a 4a
b
..
.h
2a
Chapter 2.6 The solution of ax2 .bx c 0,
..
a .0 . The quadratic formula. Use of the
discriminant ..b2 .4ac .
Completing the square also allows us to find the general equation for the roots
of an
equation.
ax2 bx c 0
.
..
2
2 .
b .2 b
ax .bx ..
ax .
..c
.
c
..
.
2a .
4a
2
.
b .2 b
..
.ax ..
c 0
..
.
2a .
4a
.
b .2 b2 .4ac
.ax ..
..
.
2a .
4a
2
.
b .2 b .4ac
.
x ..
..
2
.
2a .
4a
bb2 .4ac .
b2 .4ac
.x .
..
2a 4a22a
.bb2 .4ac
.x ..
2
a 2a
bb2 .4
..
ac
.x .
2a
This equation is known as the quadratic formula.
What is important to note in this formula is the discriminant ..b2 .4ac . This
determines whether or not the quadratic has a real solution.
Where ..0 , the quadratic has two repeated roots, where ..0 , the quadratic has
two
different roots and where ..0 the quadratic has no real roots.
Chapter 2.7 The function: x .
ax , a .0 . The inverse function x .
log ax, x .0.
Graphs of y .ax and y .logax . Solutions of ax .b using logarithms.
The function x .
ax has a curvature that tends towards zero as x tends towards infinity.
The curvature also tends towards zero as x tends towards negative infinity. The
gradient,
1
however, constantly increases from 0 at x ... to at x ... Its inverse function i
s
0
merely a reflection of this in the x-axis.
We can find the solutions of ax .b using logarithms:
ax .b
.log a ax .log ab
.x .log ab
For harder equations, the solutions can be found the following way:
ax .
b
.log ax .
log b
log b
.x .
log a
Chapter 2.8 The exponential function x .
ex . The logarithmic function x .
ln x ,
x .
0.
It is known from topic 1.1 that the equation for compound interest is:
100% .
i%
u 1 .
u rn , where u1 .
initial investment, r .
, i .
interest rate per
n.
1
100%
compounding period, n = number of periods and un.1 .
amount after n periods.
It is clear that r .1.
i , and that if we treat the initial investment to be the 0th term, we get
n
an equation where un .
u0 r .
u0 .1.
i.n .
If r is (instead) the percentage rate per year, t the number of years and N the
number of
N
.
..rt
r
Nt ..
..
r ..
1 .
interest payments per year, then un .
u0 .1 ..
u01.
..
.
N ..
N .
.
...
..
r ..
a.rt a
N ..
1 .
...
1 ..rt
Let .
a , then un .
u0 .1 ..
u0 ..1 ..
r .
a .
..
a .
..
.
xx ln a
But a .e where a and x are any real number, thus:
.
a .rt
un .
u0 ...
1.
1
.
.
.
..
a ..
..
.
1 .a
.
lim 1..
e
..
a...
a .
ax2 .
bx .
c .
0, x .
R, a .
0,
ax2 .
bx .
c .
0, x .
R, a .
0.
There is no critical value in either case.
Note: Do not, under any circumstances, cross-multiply. This removes certain term
s from
the equations and prevents one from finding all the solutions.
Chapter 2.10 Polynomial functions. The factor and remainder theorems, with
application to the solution of polynomial equations and inequalities.
It is important to note that the higher the order of the polynomial function, th
e steeper the
line for
x .
1 and the less steep the line for
x .
1. Odd orders have negative values
where x < 0 but even order always having positive values unless translated down.
Repeated roots merge on a graph to appear as only one root. Repeated roots signi
fy a
point of inflection.
The factor theorem
According to polynomial division,
P(x) .
Q(x).x .
k..
R
Thus, where x = k
P(k) .
Q(k) .
0 .
R
.
P(k) .
R
Therefore when polynomial P(x) is divided by x .k until a constant remainder R i
s
obtained then R .P(k)
.k until a constant remainder R is
obtained then R .P(k)
The remainder theorem
If k is a zero of P(x) thus:
P(x) .P(k) .0
.R .0
.P(x) ..(x).x .k .
..x .k . is a factor of P(x)
In general: k is a zeroof P(x) ..x .k.is a factor of P(x).
Using the remainder theorem to find the remainder allows us to find how far the
P(x)
minimum/maximum point of the graph of .R .0 is shifted away from the x-axis.
Q(x)
Using the factor theorem allows us to quickly find the roots (if the factor is k
nown) or the
factors (if the root is known) of the polynomial equation and thus solve polynom
ial
equations and inequalities quickly.
Chapter 3.1 The circle: radian measure of angles; length of an arc; area of a se
ctor.
One radian is defined as the angle that subtends an arc of length equal to the r
adius. Thus,
.arc r
.
.
C
total
C 2.
..
r
r
.arc 1
...
.
2.r 2.
total
1
Thus 1 radian is of the angle of a full circle, thus there are 2. radians per fu
ll turn.
2.
.c
180.
This means that: 2 .c .360., so 1c . and 1..
.
.
180
Thus, the length of an arc in radians is:
.
l ..2.r ..r
2.
And the area of a sector is:
.
2 .r2
A .
..r .
2.
2
Chapter 3.2 Definition of cos. and sin. in terms of the unit circle. Definition
of
sin.
tan. as . Definition of sec., csc. and cot.. Pythagorean identities:
cos .
22 2222
cos ..sin .1; 1tan ..sec .; ..
.
1cot .csc ..
The Sine Function
The sine function of . means that for a right angled triangle with angle .(as sh
own in
the diagram), the ratio of the length of the opposite side to that of the hypote
nuse is equal
to the sine function of ..
22 2
Pythagoras s theorem states that a .b .c where a is the opposite side, b is the
adjacent side and c is the hypotenuse, thus we can state that:
sin..a
c
b
cos..
c
a
ac sin.
tan ...
.
bb cos.
c
The unit circle has radius 1. This means that the hypotenuse has radius 1. We ca
n thus
22 2
use Pythagoras s Theorem to state that a .b .1 and that therefore a ...
1 b and
b ..
1 a2.
Thus, in terms of the unit circle,
cos...b
c
1.a2
1
1 a2.
.
.
b
a 1.b2
sin...
12
..
.
b
a
c 1
And
a 1.b2 ab
tan ...
.
b 1.a21.a21.b2
This tells us the variance of each function in terms of the unit length of the o
pposite and
in terms of the unit length of the adjacent. In the plotting the sine curve, we
plot a on the
y-axis and .on the x-axis. .on the x-axis.
Thus we obtain:
a .sin .
1.a2 .cos .
1 a2 cos 2
...
.
2 22
.
..
.sin 2 ..cos 2 ..1
And
tan ..
a
1.a2
a 1cos ..sin .
2
.tan 2 ..
a
1.a2
..a sin.
sin2 .
.tan 2 ..
1sin 2 .
.
2
1sin 2 ..sin 2
..
2 ..
sin .
..
.
.1tan ..
12 2
1sin ..
1sin
..
1sin 2 ..cos 2
..
.
21 2
1tan ..
.sec
..
.
cos 2 .
Also
2 sin2 .
tan ..
2
1sin .
.
11.sin 2 .
..cot2 ..
tan 2 .
sin 2 .
2 sin2 .
1 sin2 .
12
..
1cot ..
2 .
2 .csc
..
.
sin .
sin .
Chapter 3.3 Compound angle identities. Double angle identities.
Compound angle identities
Equation booklet:
sin(A .B) .sin Acos B .cos Asin B
Proof
Consider P(cos A, sin A) and Q(cos B, sin B) as any two points on the unit circl
e.
Angle POQ is AB
.
..
2 ...
....
.
.
..
cos.A..
B.cos Acos B.sin sin
.
AB
If we state that cos ..
.
cos .cos ..sin .cos ., we can let ...Band..A.
...
...
...
.
.AB.cos AB sin A .
.
.
.
...
...
.
....
.cos ..
cos..
sin
..
B
.
..
B sin ..
sin .
..
B
.cos .
.
..
cos ..
BB
cos.AB.cos Acos B.sin AB
.
..
sin
sin .
..
.
.AB.
.cos ..
.
.2 .
...
..
.AB..
.cos ..
.AB
.
..
..2 ..
...
...
.
AB
It is also clear that
sin ..
sin
.AB.sin Acos B.cos AB
.
tan A.tan B
tan .AB
..
1tan Atan
.
B
Double angle identities
sin 2 A .sin .A .A..sin Acos A .cos Asin A .2sin Acos A A .sin .A .A..sin Acos A
.cos Asin A .2sin Acos A
sin 2 A .sin .A .A..cos Acos A .sin Asin A .cos 2 A .sin2 A
2222 2
cos 2 A .cos A .sin A .cos A ..cos A 1.
2cos A .1
..
2222 2
cos 2 A .cos A .sin A .1 sin A..sin A ..
2sin
..
1 A
tan A .tan A 2 tan A
tan 2 A ..
2
1.tan A tan A 1.tan A
Trig identities table:
Angle Sine Cosine Tangent
0 0 4 0
2 2
.
1 3 1
6 2 2 3
.
2 2 2
4 2 2 2
.
3 1 3
3 2 2 1
.
4 0 4
2 2 2 0
Chapter 3.4 The circular functions sin x , cos x and tan x ; their domains and r
anges;
their periodic nature; their graphs. Composite functions of the form
f ..x .
..sin a b x ..c d.
.
. The inverse functions x .
arcsin x ,x .
arccos x ,
x .
arctan x ; their domains and ranges; their graphs.
The period of the untranslated sine and cosine functions is 2.and their range is
1.
In the form f ...a sin .bx .c..
x ..d ,
a represents a stretch from the x-axis of factor a,
1
b represents a stretch from the y-axis of factor ,
b
c represents a translation c units to the left
d represents a translation d units upward.
The reciprocal functions can be derived through common sense.
The inverse function can only be derived by restricting the domain to . for all
the
trigonometric functions, then reflecting in the line y .x .
Chapter 3.5 Solutions of trigonometric equations in a finite interval. Use of
trigonometric identities and factorisation to transform equations.
For the first one: Use the inverse functions, then add or subtract 2.(or .) acco
rdingly.
For the second one: Use trigonometric identities to find alternative ways of wri
ting
certain transformations. In short, put trigonometric functions into the form
fx .a sin bx .c .d using factors and identities to be able to describe the
transformation.
..
....
2 22
Chapter 3.6 Solution of triangles. The cosine rule: c .a .b .2cos
ab C . The sine
abc 1
rule: ..
. Area of a triangle as absin C .
sin A sin B sin C 2
Any triangle with vertices A, B, C and sides a, b, c can be made into two right-
angled
triangles as shown.
hh hh
11 22
sin A .
, sin B .
sin A .
, sin C .
ba ca
.bsin A .h1 .a sin B .c sin A .h2 .a sin C
.bsin A .a sin B .c sin A .a sin C
ab ac
..
..
Two matrices can only be multiplied together if the first (matrix multiplication
is not
commutative) matrix has the same number of columns as the second has rows. The
resulting matrix has the same number of rows of the first matrix and the same nu
mber of
columns as the second.
p
..
..
.
.
...
r.
abc q apbqc
..
..
r
..
The identity matrix I is the matrix such that A.I = A where A is any square matr
ix. For
.100.
.10.
..
22I . and for 33I .010
. matrices, .matrices,
..
..
01
....
001
..
To prove this,
.ab.
Let A .
..
cd
..
.pq.
Thus:
.ab ..
pq ..
ab .
..
.
..
..
.
cdrs cd
.
..
..
.
..ap .br..
aq .bs...ab .
..
....
.cp .dr ..
cq .ds..cd .
..
.
ap ..
br a
aq ..
bs b
cp ..
dr c
cq ..
ds d
ap ..
br a
.ap ..a br
abr
.
.a .
p
abr
ap br
...
p
ap2 .brp abr
.
..
ap2 a brp br 0
.
..
..
.ap2 12 p ..
1
..
br 0
ap..1..p 1..
br p ..
1.
.
...
.
..
0
..p .1..a .p .1..br ..0
.p .1
.s .1
.r .0
.q .0
.pq ..
10.
..
.
..
.
rs 01
.
..
.
A zero matrix is a matrix in which all elements are equal to 0 such that
AO = O and A + O = A
It is important to note that multiplication by both the identity and the zero ma
trix is
commutative.
Here are some rules:
If A and B are matrices that can be multiplied then AB is also a matrix.
Matrix multiplication is non-commutative.
If O is a zero matrix then AO = OA = O for all A.
A(B + C) = AB + AC
If I is the identity matrix then AI = IA = A
An for n . 2 can be determined provided that A is a square and n is an integer.
.ab ..pq ..
10.
.
.
..
..
.
cd rs 01
.
..
..
.
.ap .br aq .bs ..
10.
..
.
..
.
.cp .dr cq .ds ..
01.
ap br 1
..
aq bs 0
..
cp dr 0
..
cq ds 1
..
ap br 1
..
cp dr 0
..
.
ap br 1
..
ad
ap .
r .0
c
.
ad .
.b .
r .1
..
.
c .
c .c
.r ..
bc .ad ad .bc
bc adad
ap ..
..
1 br 1 ..
.
bc .ad bc .ad ad .bc
ad d
.p ..
.ad .bc.a ad .bc
a
.s .
ad .bc
bc .b
.q ..
.
.ad .bc c .
ad .bc
.
d .b .
..
.
pq .
ad .
bc ad .
bc 1 .
d .b .
.
..
..
..
..
rs .c aad .
bc .ca
...
...
..
.
ad .
bc ad .
bc .
b2 c2
A
.
a1
b3 c3
.
b1
ca
22
ca
33
matrix:
.
c1
a2 b2
.
a3 b3
Chapter 4.4 Solutions of systems of linear equations (a maximum of three equatio
ns in
three unknowns). Conditions for the existence of a unique solution, no solution
and an
infinity of solutions.
AX .
B
.
-1
.XAB
Above is how to solve simultaneous equations.
Row Operations (simultaneous equations):
The equations can be interchanged without affecting the solutions
We can now manipulate the equations using row operations to get a matrix in the
form
.
ab
c .
.
From which we may get a unique solution.
.
0 p
q
.
.
.ab
c .
If a matrix
.
is obtained, the equation has no solution.
.
ab
d
.
.
.
ab
c.
If a matrix
. is obtained then there are infinitely many solutions.
.
2a2b
2c
.
.
Reduced row echelon form allows us to find unique solutions to simultaneous equa
tions:
.abc
d1 ..ab c
d.
111
.
..
.
abc
d .0 ef
g
.222
2 ..
.
.abc
d..00 h
i.
.333
3 ..
geometric approaches to the following topics: the sum and difference of two vect
ors; the
..
.
zero vector, the vector .v; multiplication by a scalar, kv; magnitude of a vecto
r,
v
; unit
.......
.
the equation
v
For two general points A(x, yz, ) and B(x, yz) in a three dimensional space,
,
111 222
2 22
AB
(x.x) .( yy ) .(zz )
.
..
21 2121
2 2 2
1 2 3v v v....
0
..
...
..
The zero vector is a vector 0 such that 0 aaa0.....
..
..
0
..
..
If v maps point A onto point B, then .v maps point B onto point A.
Summary of vector arithmetic
..
b
a1 ..
1
..
..
..
ifa.a2 , bb 2,
..
...
..
..
ab
..33
..
ab.
.1 .1
..
ab ab
...
.
2 .2 .
.
.
ab
.3 .3 ..
....
abba
...
....
..
( ....
.
) ()
ab ca bc
.
..
a....
00 aa
..
..
....
..
a () 0
a aa
.
Also,
ka
.ka
...
...
xab xba
.....
..
.
1
kxa x
...
a
k
....
.
....
.
....
.
.....
.
.
..
ab
if OA .aand OB .b, then AB ba , BA ..
....
( OA is a position vector, mapping the origin onto a point A).
Definitions
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction, but do not
have to
be on the same line:
pr
....
.
pr and .
.....
.
qs
qs
....
..
1
v is the length of the unit vector in the direction of v.
v
.
...
.
..
.wv
vw v..wv.w. Algebraic properties of the scalar product. Perpendicular
1122 33
vectors. The angle between two vectors.
The scalar product of two vectors, also known as the dot product or inner produc
t of two
...
vectors, vw gives us a scalar answer. The scalar product is defined by the secon
d
.
...
equation, vw v..wvw v.w, but it can be proved that the first equation is also tr
ue,
.
1122 33
...
.
..
vw
..
v
w
cos . using the method described on p.381, H&H.
...
.
..
A consequence of vw
..
v
w
cos . is that for parallel vectors, where ..0 , the
...
.
..
.
..
.
equation gives vw
..
v
w
cos 0 .
v
w
and for perpendicular vectors, where ..
, the
2
...
.
..
.
equation gives vw
..
v
w
cos .0 . Thus, it is possible to find the solution for missing
2
222 222
variables by setting vw v.wv.w...v...
vv w..
ww.and by setting
112233 123 1 2 3
vwvw vw.0.
..
1122 33
Algebraic properties of the scalar product
..
..
ab ba
...
..
.
2
aa
..
a
..
....
abc abac
..
....
...
..
...
..........
.ab ..cd .acad bcbd
.
.
.
........
..
.
n
..
x
..
0
..
(see collinear points). Thus, y0 maps one point in three-dimensional space from
the
..
..
z
0
..
l
..
..
111 222
Chapter 5.4 Coincident, parallel and skew lines, distinguishing between these ca
ses.
Points of intersection.
Two lines are coincident if the Cartesian equations of one are a scalar multiple
of the
other.
Two lines are parallel if the angle between the two lines found using the scalar
product of
their direction vectors is 0 angular units, but the Cartesian equations of one i
s not a scalar
multiple of the others.
Two lines are intersecting if the angle between the two lines found using the sc
alar
product of their direction vectors is . angular units and they intersect at a po
int found by
representing their equations as matrices and solving them (see chapter 4.4).
Two lines are skew if the angle between the two lines found using the scalar pro
duct of
their direction vectors is . angular units and representing their equations as m
atrices
gives no solution (see chapter 4.4).
Another way of finding points of intersection is as follows.
Take two lines L1 and L2 where:
: ..
.lyy , .
.
., ..
.n
Lxx mzz
1 01 01 01
:...lya , ..
., ..
.n
L xa mza
2 12 22 32
ax .
ay .
az
.
10 20 30
If: .
..., the lines intersect at coordinates found by substituting
ll mmnn .
..
12 1212
the obtained value of . into the parametric equations.
....
.
Chapter 5.5 The vector product of two vectors, vw. The determinant representatio
n.
...
Geometric interpretation of
vw
.
.
...
.
The vector, or cross product of two vectors, vwis a function of the two vectors
which
.
gives a vector perpendicular to the two vectors. Thus, the vector product of two
vectors v
v
..
...1
..
and wwhere v.v2
..
..
v
3
..
vw ab.
..
23 32
...
..
vw v.w .
..
wv
.31 13 .
..
vw vw
.
.12 21 .
...
i jk
w
..
..
..1
and w.w2 is given by:
..
..
w
3
..
...
i jk
vv v
123
www
123
.
.
.
vv
vv
vv
23
31
12
.
i.
j.
k.
ww
ww
ww
23
31
12
vv v
is known as a 33
. determinant.
123
www
123
A normal is a line perpendicular to a plane. Thus, given two vectors (or three p
oints) on a
plane, a normal to the plane can be found. Since it s a direction vector, any scal
ar
multiple of a normal vector in its simplest form is usable.
Vector product algebra
...
...
vw v.., w
..
vv 0
..
...
...
vw..wv
..
abc ab ac
......
......
..
...
..
...
..
...
.ab..cd ..ac ..ad ..bc ..bd .
....
........
...
.
..
...
22 2
...w vw ..
.
.w .
w vw.
vw
v.
vw v..
v..
v
w
sin..,.vw
..
23 32 3113 12 21
Properties
.
...
...
.
..
Ifu.
1 .vw vw ., ..
v
w
sin .u
vw
...
...
...
...
0 vw.
vw .
.
..
...
1
If a triangle has defining vectors vand wthen its area is
vw
.
.
2
.
..
abc
..
.
..
.
..
aa a
123
bb b
and is called the scalar triple product.
123
cc c
123
..
.
.
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
.
...on the plane, and the vector equation of one line in space is given by ra bwh
ere a
.
is a vector mapping the origin onto one point on the line and bis a the directio
n vector of
the line, the vector equation of the plane can be found by adding the direction
vector of
....
..
another line to the equation, i.e. ra...b..cwhere band c are two non-parallel
vectors that are parallel to the plane.
....
....
....
.
.
..
If A is a point on a plane and R is another point on the plane, then AR .OR .OB
ra
.
where r is the position vector of R (which is a general point ( x,
, yz) on the plane) and
.
a is the position vector of A. Thus, the normal to the plane will also be perpen
dicular to
that line, so:
...
nra ..
..
.
0
...
.
nr n .a.0.....
.
..
..
...n...
nr .
..
.
a
..
..
nr na ....
This is a different way of expressing the vector equation of a line. This means
that if a
a
..
..
normal vector b passes through a point x0 yz, 0) then:
(, 0
..
..
c
..
axbycz d
...
, where d is some constant. This gives us the Cartesian equation of the
line:
a
..
..
0 .
0 .
....
where b is a normal vector of the plane.
ax by cz 0 axbycz d
..
..
c
..
Chapter 5.7 Intersections of: a line with a plane; two planes; three planes. Ang
le
between: a line and a plane; two planes.
When given the Cartesian equation of a plane, the intersection of a line with th
e plane can
be found by using the parametric form for expressing the line in terms , , and .
xyz and
substituting each into the Cartesian equation of the plane, thus solving for .(a
s shown in
H&H, p. 446 example 20).
Take two planes P1 and P2 where:
1:..
0 .l..dy y 1, .
.
.1 .., 0 .n..1
Pxx ezz
10 m 1 ..
1 f
2:..1 .l..dya 2 , .
.
.2 .., 3 .n..f2
Pxa 22 m 2 ..
2
eza
Thus, the line of intersection of a plane can be found by setting the equations
of either x,
yor zequal to one another and solving for .
in terms of . or .
in terms of . and thus
substituting it into the two remaining equations to solve for the remaining cons
tant. The
two values found, substituting them into the parametric form equations gives the
coordinates of a point of intersection. This method is extremely long and ineffi
cient,
however. Keeping the equations in terms of . will yield a line described in para
metric
form, however.
The intersection of three planes is found by using the Cartesian forms of the th
ree vectors
and inputting them into an augmented matrix to solve for x, yand z. If no soluti
ons are
yielded, there is no common point of intersection. If a unique solution is yield
ed, the
three planes meet at a point. If there is are an infinite number of solutions, t
he planes
meet at a line with parametric equations given by the matrix where z is substitu
ted by a
variable t.
Alternatively, if the three planes meet at a point, the inverse matrix method me
ntioned
earlier can be used:
AX .
B
.
-1
.XAB
Finding whether or not the determinant of A exists can be a quick method for
determining whether or not the three planes meet at a point.
..
.
The angle between a line with direction vector dand a plane with normal vector n
is
.
..
.
.
nd
.
found using the equation ..
arcsin .
.
(see H&H p.449).
.
..
.
.
nd
.
.....
If two planes have normal vectors n and n, the acute angle . between the two
1....2
.
.
.
nn
1 .
2
intersecting planes is given by ..
arccos .
.
. The obtuse angle ..180 ..
.
.....
.
.
nn
1
2
.
Chapter 6.3 Mean, median, mode; quartiles, percentiles. Range; interquartile ran
ge;
variance, standard deviation.
nn
.x .
fx
i ii
i.1 i.1
Mean: xn ..
n
n .
fi
i.1
.
nf
i
i.1
Median: x.
.
xm where .
fm
2
Mode: Mode .
xr where fr .
i, .
r
fi
The population mean, ., is generally unknown but the sample mean, xserves as an
unbiased estimate of this mean.
s
A quartile (Qs) is a the value of xwhich has of the total frequency falling belo
w this i4
1.
s
value and of the total frequency falling above this value. This is only applicab
le to
4
continuous data.
s
A percentile is like a quartile, but for .
100
The range is the difference between the highest and lowest value in the data set
.
The interquartile range is Q3-Q1.
The variance is a measure of statistical dispersion (to what extent the data val
ues deviate
from the mean).
The population variance .
2 of a finite population of size nis given by:
.
2 .
1 .
n .xi ...2
n
i.1
The population variance is, however, generally unknown and hence the adjusted sa
mple
variance is used as an unbiased estimate of the population variance:
n
222 2
sn.1 .
sn where sn is the unadjusted sample variance and sn.1 is the estimate.
n.1
Chapter 6.4 Cumulative frequency; cumulative frequency graphs; use to find media
n,
quartiles and percentiles.
Cumulative frequency is the frequency of all values less than a given value. A t
able can
be drawn as shown:
Parameters f .
f
10 lx..
1a 1a
21 lxl ..
a2 21 aa .
32 lxl ..
3a 321 aaa ..
43 lxl ..
a4 4321 aaaa ...
54 lxl ..
5a 54321 aaaaa ....
65 lxl ..
6a 654321 aaaaaa .....
Drawing a cumulative frequency graph (based on the upper limit of each parameter
)
enables one to find the median, quartiles and percentiles by taking the required
fraction of
the total frequency (cumulative frequency of the highest value) and finding the
corresponding value on the x-axis.
Chapter 6.5 Concepts of trial, outcome, equally likely outcomes, sample space (U
) and
()
nA
event. The probability of an event Aas P( ) .
A . The complementary events Aand
()
nU
A. (not A);P( ) .
P( ) .1.
AA.
The number of trials is the total number of times the experiment is repeated.
The outcomes are the different results possible for one trial of the experiment.
Equally likely outcomes are expected to have equal frequencies.
The sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment.
And event is the occurrence of one particular outcome.
()
nA
P( ) .
A is the probability of an event A from occurring in one trial,
A where P( )
()
nU
nA()is the number of members of the event Aand ()
nU is the total number of possible
outcomes.
Since an event must either occur or not occur, the probability of the event eith
er
occurring or not occurring must be 1. This can be stated as follows.
P( ) .
P( ) .1
AA.
Chapter 6.6 Combined events, the formula: P( AB.
) .
P( ) .
B .
P(
P( ) AB).
A .
P(AB) .
.
0 for mutually exclusive events.
Given two events, Aand B, the probability of at least one of the two events occu
rring,
(can also be stated as the probability of either AorBoccurring) or P.
ABis given by
..
P( )
B
.
P(AB) .
P( A
.
B)P( )
B
P(AB.
) .
AB
.
P( )P( )
An important theorem is Bayes Theorem for two events (not necessarily independent
).
P(B)P(AA)
.
P(BA) .
P(B)P(BB) .
P(B.)P(AB.)
This can be partially derived (or written in another form) in the following way:
P(AB)
.
P(AB) .
P( )
B
P( .
) P( )P( B AB)
AB
.
P(BA) ..
P( ) A P( )
A
Chapter 6.8 Use of Venn diagrams, tree diagrams and tables of outcomes to solve
problems.
Venn Diagrams
()
nA
The probability is found using the principle P( ) .
A .
nU
It is important to note that n(A) ..A.
A.
B..
A.
Band n(U) .
n(A) .
n(B) .
n(o.).
Tree diagrams
A more flexible method for finding probabilities is known as a tree diagram.
()
This allows one to calculate the probabilities of the occurrence of events, even
where
trials are non-identical (where P(AA) .
P(A) ), through the product principle.
Tables of outcomes
Refer to H&H p.504-5.
Chapter 6.9 Concept of discrete and continuous random variables and their probab
ility
distributions. Definition and use of probability density functions. Expected val
ue (mean),
mode, median, variance and standard deviation.
A random variable represents in number form the possible outcomes, which could o
ccur
for some random experiment. For any random variable there is a probability distr
ibution
associated with it.
A discrete random variable involves a count. Thus, a discrete random variable Xh
as
possible values 1, 2,3
xxx,.....
Thus, finding P( X.
x) (the probability distribution of x) involves listing P( )
xifor each
value of xi.
In random distribution, the expected outcome E(X) is the mean. The standard devi
ation,
or Var( X), is the square of the distance of X from the mean:
2 22 222
..
Var( X) .
E( X..) .
E( X) .{E( X)}. E(X) xpfor discrete random
..
ii
variables and E(X2) ..
2 ()d
xfx x for continuous random distribution.
For a discrete random variable, the mode and median can be found as outlined abo
ve.
The mean and variance can be expressed as follows:
.
..xp
ii
2 22
.
...x...2 p..xp ..
i iii
A continuous random variable involves measurements. A continuous random variable
X
has all possible values in some interval (on the number line).
Rather than a probability distribution, continuous random variables have probabi
lity
density functions. A continuous probability function (pdf), f( ),x is a function
where
.b
() 0on a given interval, such as [a, b] and fx x.1. For a continuous
fx.
()d
a
probability density function, the mode is that value of x at the maximum value o
f f()xon
m 1
[a, b]. The median m of the equation ()d . The mean and
, is the solution for mfxx.
a
.
2
variance can be expressed as follows:
.
..
xfx()d
..
x
2 22
...
x...2 ()d .
xfx x
fx x ( )d ..
..
2 Var()X..2 Var()X..
It is important to note that standard deviation ..
m .
....
2.
.
f
There are three criteria that must be met in order for a random probability dist
ribution to
be a binomial distribution.
1. The average number of occurrences (µ) is constant for every interval.
2. The probability of more than one occurrence in a given interval is very small
.
3. The number of occurrences in disjoint intervals are independent of each other
.
Chapter 6.11 Normal distribution. Properties of the normal distribution.
Standardization of normal variables.
If X is normally distributed then its probability density function is given by
1.
x..
.2
..
.
12 .
f(x) .
e ..
for ...
x..
.
.
2.
..
f(x)dx.1
..
..
Max.
f(x).
.
is uniquely determined as the horizontal distance from the vertical distance fro
m the
vertical line x..
to a point of inflection.
In a normal distribution, 68.26% of values lie within one standard deviation of
the mean,
95.4% of values lie within two standard deviations of the mean and 99.74% of val
ues lie
within three standard deviations of the mean.
()
nA
Since P( ) .
A , the probability of X lying within a certain interval is equal to the
nU
()
percentage of values that lie within that interval. This is obtained from the da
ta booklet
and from GDCs.
The standard normal distribution, or Z-distribution, is the application of the
X..
transformation Z.
to a normal X-distribution, such that the mean is at x = 0 and
.
there is one standard deviation per unit on the x-axis. Where the probability de
nsity
function for normal distribution has two parameters .
and .
, the Z-distribution has
none. This makes it useful when comparing results from two or more different nor
mal
distributions, since comparing Z-values allows one to take into account the stan
dard
deviation and mean when comparing results.
Finding probabilities with a GDC involves using normalcdf(a,b, .,.) for lower li
mit a
and upper limit b (under DISTR ). It is important to note that P(Z.
a) .
P(Z.
a).
To find probabilities for a normally distributed random variable X, convert Xval
ues to Z
using the transformation, sketch the standard normal curve (shade the required r
egion)
and find the standard normal table or a graphics calculator to find the probabil
ity.
normalpdf(x, .,.
) gives the probability for a particular x-value.
Chapter 7.1 Informal ideas of limit and convergence. Definition of derivative as
f.xh fx ..
.
.
..
..
nx
...lim .. Derivative of x.n..., sin x, cos x, tan x, eand
fx .
h.0
h
..
ln x. Derivative interpreted as a gradient function and as rate of change. Deriv
atives of
reciprocal circular functions. Derivatives of ax and logax. Derivatives of arcsi
n x,
arccos x, arctan x.
All functions approach a particular value as the value of the variable they are
in terms of
approaches a given value. However, in certain cases, it is not possible to direc
tly
determine the value of the function at that particular value of the variable bec
ause the
answer involves division by zero or the value of the variable in question is, in
fact,
infinity. Thus, where a function converges towards a particular value, it can be
said that
the limit of the function at that value of the variable is equal to the value th
e function
approaches.
For example, sin..0 only where ..0 and since the function sin.is continuous, it
means that for..0,sin..
.
. What is more, since the closest point of inflection to the
sine function occurs at 0, the closer . is to 0, the closer sin.is to ..
..
sin..
Thus, given the function f..
, the closer . is to 0, the closer f....1.
.
..
However, 0 is undefined. Thus, we can say that since f...tends towards 1 as .ten
ds
0
sin.
sin.
equal to .
. It can be seen that the closer point B is to A,
..
..
h
xh x
the closer the gradient of the arc is to the gradient of the tangent at point A.
Expressed
using limit notation, this gives us the equation:
f.xh fx ..
.
..
.
.
fx() .lim
h.0 h
Using this equation to find the derivative of a function at a point is known as
finding the
derivative from first principles. This is done by manipulating the equation unti
l his taken
out of the denominator, since this will generate exactly the same result as the
previous
equation but with the additional solution for where h.0 , thus telling us what t
he limit of
the function as h tends towards 0 is at the point by setting the h.0 and solving
for the
derivative.
This allows us to generate some general rules for the derivatives.
The first of these is the power rule:
Let () .xn
fx
Thus:
nn
..
..
nn1 .
nn
.
nr r
.
xh ..
... xh ...
nx ..
.
hx
n ..
..
.xh..xr
.
1
..
..
fx.() .lim .lim
h.0 hh.0 h
..nn
..
n1 .
n
.
nr r
... xh .....
xh..
h
..
..
1 rn ..
..
n
..
..
n.1 nr r ..1 n.1
.lim .lim x ..
xh ...
... ..
h
..
..
h.0 hh.01 r
..
..
n
..
n.1 n.1
.
x ..
0 nx
..
1
..
fx .()
() .cos x.fx ..sin x
fx .()
() .tan x.fx .sec 2 x
fx .()
fx() ..
e .()
x fx .ex
1
fx ..()
() .ln x fx .
x
When expressed as f.()x, the derivative of f()x suggests the rate of change func
tion.
dy
When expressed as , the derivative of f()x.ysuggests a gradient function. The tw
o
dx
dy
are, however, completely interchangeable, though is by far a more useful and eas
ier
dxto manipulate form.
dy
This is because represents the point gradient on the curve as the ratio between
an
dxinfinitely small displacement dyin the y-direction and an infinitely small dis
placement dx
in the x-direction, representing any given curve as a series of connected infini
tely small
line segments with gradient equal to the tangent of the curve at that point.
Because this representation of the gradient of the tangent is in the form of a f
raction (of
infinitely small parts), this allows it to be manipulated in such a way as to yi
eld
interesting results.
dy
For instance, where gives the gradient function of a curve whose y values are in
terms
dx
1 ..
dx
of x, .
gives the gradient function of a curve whose x-values are in terms of
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
dy dy
dx
..
y. Taking the integral of this function gives you .dx.dxwhich is not a very usef
ul
dy
result, however the inverse of this function, .dx.dygives us (what used to be) x
in
dy
terms of y, in other words, the inverse of the function.
To summarise: The inverse of the integral of the reciprocal of the derivative of
a function
is equal to the inverse of the function.
The inverse of the reciprocal of the derivative of a function is equal to the de
rivative of
the inverse of the function.
The above derivatives and the many more required are all in the formula booklet.
dy dx
If a curve has gradient function , the normal to the curve has function .
.
dx dy
Chapter 7.2 Differentiation of a sum and a real multiple of functions in 7.1. Th
e chain
rule for composite functions. Application of chain rule to related rates of chan
ge. The
product and quotient rules. The second derivative. Awareness of higher derivativ
es.
An important rule to remember in differentiation is that if:
..() ..
() ch()
yafx bgx ...
...
x
dy
yg.
x
dx dudx
dy
y.
fgx ( ()) ..
gx () fgx
..
( ())
dx
dy
() ..
u..
(),
y.
fu .
()
fuu gx
dx
This has a great many applications, not only to allow for the differentiation of
more
complicated functions but also to allow for the derivation of many other functio
ns.
The Chain rule also allows for the determination of related rates of change.
dv dv ds
.. is one example of this, where the function for instantaneous acceleration is
dt ds dt
using the functions of instantaneous velocity and the equation of speed relative
to
displacement.
The product rule can be described in a similarly clear way:
dy dv du
yu.
v, where u.
( ), .
() ..
fxvgx u .
v
dx dx dx
As can the quotient rule:
du dv
v .
u
u dy
dx dx
y.
, where u.
fxv gx ( ), .
() ..
v dxv2
Generally speaking, it is safe to say that these are merely equations to be dire
ctly applied
to the question as needed.
d2 y
The second derivative f..()x or 2 is the derivative of the derivative of the fun
ction. It
dxrepresents the curvature of the function: the rate at which the gradient is ch
anging in
relation to x. This is useful for reasons outlined in the next chapter.
dny
Higher derivatives, expressed as n or f()n()
x, are the derivatives of the derivative one
dxorder down.
Chapter 7.3 Local maximum and minimum points. Use of the first and second
derivative in optimization problems.
dy d2 y d2 y
Local maxima and minima occur where .0 and 2 .
0. If 2 .
0 for that value of
dx dx dx
d2 y
x, the point is a minimum, if 2 .
0 for that value of x, the point is a maximum. These
dx
can therefore be used in optimisation questions where the function for a given p
arameter
is found and the differentiation applied, such as in cases dealing with profit,
area or
volume.
Chapter 7.4 Indefinite integration as antidifferentiation. Indefinite integral o
f
nx 1
x .n ..1., sin x , cos x , e , . The composites of any of these with the linear
x
function ax .b .
Indefinite integration gives the general formula for the area under a function f
rom the
origin to x. One form of indefinite integration is antidifferentiation. It can b
e explained
conceptually in the following way. Seeing as differentiation is the process by w
hich you
divide the infinitely small rise by the infinitely small run at each point, the
reverse
process, defined as antidifferentiation, must involve the opposite process, as i
n finding
the sum the areas of the infinitely small trapeziums under each infinitely small
line
segment.
Antidifferentiation is simply the inverse function of differentiation. The antid
ifferential of
a function is the function which, when differentiated, gives the original functi
on.
When asked to antidifferentiate, ask yourself: What function, when differentiate
d, would
give me this function?
Integration rules:
() .dx .kf ()
kfx x .dx
..
..
x .
()..dx .
()x .dx ..
()
f () gx f gx dx
..
kdx ..kx .c
n 1 n.1
xdx ..
x .c
.
n .1
.
x .
x
edx ..
e .c
1
.dx .ln
x
.c
.x
.
.
ax.ba
1 ax .b
e .dx .
e .c
n.1
n 1(ax .b)
.ax .b..dx ..c
.
an .1
.
11
.dx .
ln
ax .b
.c
ax .ba
du
fu() dx .
()
fu .du
..
dx
Chapter 7.5 Anti-differentiation with a boundary condition to determine the cons
tant
term. Definite Integrals. Area between a curve and the x-axis or y-axis in a giv
en interval,
areas between curves. Volumes of revolution.
If given the value of f ( ) at a given value of x for the integral of a function
, it is possible
x
to plug in the numbers to determine the constant term c in f .( )d .
fx .c.
xx ()
.
.b
fxx fb ( ) where
.( )d .
() .fa b is the upper limit of x and a is the lower limit.
a
This gives the area between the curve and the x-axis for those limits. To find t
he area
between the curve and the y-axis, it is simplest to take the area of the rectang
le ff.
bb
().
and subtract from that .bf.()d xxand the area of rectangle f.() aa.
.It is also possible to
a
.bb
find the area under the curve of the inverse function, i.e. xdy rather than d.
.
yx
aa
For the volume V of revolution when an area with limits aand bis rotated about t
he x-
(first case) or y-axis (second case), it is simplest to state the equations:
.b 2 .b 2
d,..
xy dV..
yxV
aa
Similarly to the usage of rectangles outlined above, cylinders can be used when
rotating
an area between the curve and the axis is not the axis of revolution.
If rotating above a line that is not on an axis, it is necessary to use transfor
mations to
transform the axis of rotation onto either the x- or y-axis in order to use the
equations
shown above.
Chapter 7.6 Kinematic problems involving displacement, s, velocity, v, and
acceleration, a.
ds dv d2s dv
v.
, a..
.
v
dt dt dt2ds
The area under a velocity-time graph represents distance. It can be important to
manipulate derivatives so that they are in the correct form to find the required
solution.
This manipulation must not be forgotten.
Chapter 7.7 Graphical behaviour of functions: tangents and normals, behaviour fo
r
large
x
; asymptotes. The significance of the second derivative; distinction between
maximum and minimum points. Point of inflexion with zero and non-zero gradients.
The derivative of a function gives the function of its tangent, the negative rec
iprocal of
the derivative gives the function of its normal or the normal at that point. The
derivative
indicates where the function is getting more positive and where it is getting mo
re
negative. Vertical asymptotes occur where the derivative has infinite value and
the
equation of the normal has value 0 and horizontal asymptotes occur where the der
ivative
of the inverse function is infinite or where the tends to zero as xapproaches ..
(and
where the function of the normal approaches infinity).
The second derivative gives the rate of change of the derivative, i.e. the curva
ture of the
function (whether the function is getting steeper or less steep). At stationary
points, if the
second derivative is positive, the stationary point is a minimum, if the second
derivative
is negative, the stationary point is a maximum and where the stationary point ha
s second
derivative 0, the stationary point is a point of inflection, given that the thir
d derivative has
a non-zero value.
Chapter 7.8 Implicit differentiation.
dymn m.1 n mn.1 dy
xy .mx y .x ny
dx dx
Chapter 7.9 Further integration: integration by substitution integration by part
s.
.gfx f ( ) by and
du
Integration by substitution involves taking ( ( ))dx , replacing xu
multiplying by . This is derived through reverse application of the chain rule.
The part
dx
of the function chosen to serve as u depends on the situation and a feel for it
can best be
obtained through practice. CHAPTER 29 H&H
Integration by parts involves the use of the equation:
dv du
dxuv v dx
u ..
..
dx dx
Sometimes it may be necessary to do repeated integration by parts to obtain the
answer.
Chapter 7.10 Solutions of first order differential equations by separation of va
riables.
This is best understood by referring to exercise 29D in H&H. It is best summaris
ed as
shown:
dy
ky c
..
dx
1dy
...
c
ky dx
1dy
dx .d
..
cx
ky dx
.
dy .cxd
.1 .
ky
1
ln y ..
q
.
cx
k
.ln y .kcx .kq
kcx.kq
ye
..
kkcx
.Ae
This is not a general equation however the general method can be used to solve o
ther
types of equation.