10/5/2016

Digital Computer Fundamental

Abhishek Prasad

Computer

• The word computer comes from the word

“compute”, which means, “to calculate”
• Thereby, a computer is an electronic device
that can perform arithmetic operations at high
speed
• A computer is also called a data processor
because it can store, process, and retrieve data
whenever desired

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Data processing

• The activity of processing data using a

computer is called data processing

• Data is raw material used as input and

information is processed data obtained as
output of data processing

Characteristics of Computers
• Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it
automatically without human interventions

• Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs

very fast, usually measured in microseconds (10-6),
nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds (10-12)

• Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high

and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its design.
Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data
or unreliable programs are often referred to as
Garbage-In-Garbage-Out (GIGO)

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Characteristics of Computers
• Diligence: Computer is free from monotony,
tiredness, and lack of concentration. It can
continuously work for hours without creating any error
and without grumbling

• Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost

any task, if the task can be reduced to a finite series of
logical steps

• Power of Remembering: Computer can store and

recall any amount of information because of its
secondary storage capability. It forgets or looses certain
information only when it is asked to do so

Characteristics of Computers
• No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed to
do. It cannot take its own decision in this regard

• No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. Their

judgment is based on the instructions given to them in the
form of programs that are written by us (human
beings)

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Applications of Computers

• Business
• Banking
• Education
• Marketing
• Healthcare
• Military
• Communication
• Engineering Design etc

Some Well Known Early Computers

• The Mark I Computer (1937-44)

• The Atanasoff-Berry Computer ABC (1939-42)
• The Electronic Numerical Integrator And
Calculator (ENIAC) (1943-46)
• The Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer(EDVAC) (1946-52)
• The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator
• EDSAC (1947-49)
• The Universal Automatic Computer UNIVAC I
(Universal Automatic Computer) (1951)

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Computer Generations

• “Generation” in computer talk is a step in

technology. It provides a framework for the
growth of computer industry
• Originally it was used to distinguish
between various hardware technologies, but
now it has been extended to include both
hardware and software
• Till today, there are five computer generations

Computer Generations

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Computer - Types

• Computers can be broadly classified by their

speed and computing power

Components of Computer System

• All types of computers follow a same basic

logical structure
• Perform the five basic operations for converting
raw input data into information

 Take Input
 Store Data
 Processing Data
 Output Information
 Control workflow

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Components of Computer System

Block diagram of a computer

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Input Unit

An input unit of a computer system performs

the following functions:

• It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from

outside world.
• It converts these instructions and data in
computer acceptable form.
• It supplies the converted instructions and data
to the computer system for further processing.

Output Unit

An output unit of a computer system performs

the following functions:

• It accepts the results produced by the

computer, which are in coded form and hence,
cannot be easily understood by us.
• It converts these coded results to human
acceptable (readable) form.
• It supplies the converted results to outside
world.

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Storage Unit

The storage unit of a computer system holds

(or stores)the following :

• Data and instructions required for

processing(received from input devices).
• Intermediate results of processing.
• Final results of processing, before they are
released to an output device.

Types of Storage

• Primary (Main) storage

 Used to hold running program instructions

 Used to hold data, intermediate results, and
results of ongoing processing of job(s)
 Fast in operation
 Small Capacity
 Expensive
 Volatile (looses data on power dissipation)

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Types of Storage

• Secondary (Auxiliary) storage

 Used to hold stored program instructions

 Used to hold data and information of stored jobs
 Slower than primary storage
 Large Capacity
 Lot cheaper than primary storage
 Retains data even without power

Central Processing Unit

• The CPU is the brain of a computer

• The primary function is to execute programs
• The main part of a computer that controls the
overall operations of a computer and interprets
program and activates necessary components
of ALU for execution of a program
• The CPU executes programs (instructions)
stored in main memory

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Major Sections of CPU

The major sections of a CPU are:

 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

 Control Unit (CU)
 Register Array

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

• Its function is to perform arithmetic and logic

operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, divisions: AND, OR, NOT
operations etc
• It also performs increment, decrement, left shift
and clear operations
• The intermediate results of an operation are
stored in the registers (accumulator) and finally
gets transferred to main memory

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Control Unit

• It is the most important part of the CPU as it

controls and coordinates the activities of all
other units such as ALU, memory unit, input
and output unit.
• Although it does not perform any actual
processing on the data the CU acts as a central
nervous system
• It can get instructions out of memory unit and
decode the instructions
• It can determine the storage location from
where it is to get the next instructions after the
previous instruction has been executed

Register Array

• It is the memory inside the processor that holds

data to be processed and result of operation
temporarily

• There are two types of CPU registers

 Specific Purpose Register (SPR)
 General Purpose Register(GPR)

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Specific Purpose Register

• Memory Buffer Register (MBR) to hold data

• Memory Address Register(MAR) to hold
address
• Program Counter(PC) to hold next instruction
to be fetched and executed
• Stack Pointer (SP) to hold the address of top
of stack memory.
Stack is a temporary storage area where data is stored
temporarily during execution in Last In First Out Order

General Purpose Register(GPR)

• Accumulators (ACC) are used in arithmetic

calculation
• Counter Register (CX) to count the number of
repetition of execution
• Base Register (BX) to store the base
address of data
• Scratch Pad registers to hold operands
and results

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The System Concept

A system has following three characteristics:

• A system has more than one element
• All elements of a system are logically related
• All elements of a system are controlled in a
manner to achieve the system goal

A computer is a system as it comprises of integrated components

(input unit, output unit, storage unit, and CPU) that work together to
perform the steps called for in the executing program.

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Analog quantities

• All the processes and phenomenon in real

world are continuous
 Rise in temperature of a room
 Increasing day light at the dawn
 Change in speed of a car

Analog quantities vary over infinite and continuous range of

values while changing from one point to the other.

Digital Quantities

• Digital quantities are discrete or discontinuous

• Although the temperature is analog quantity, it

is represented in a discrete manner here

Digital quantities vary in discrete steps of predefined time

duration while changing from one point to the other.

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Advantages of Digital Quantities

• Easier to design and can be fabricated using
nanotechnology.
• Advantageous when processing and
transmitting the data.
• Can store huge amount of data (information) at
lesser space and with least chances of errors.
• Can reproduce data with greater accuracy and
precision than analog systems.
• Are less prone to noise

Despite of the fact that real world is mainly analog, nearly all
the systems in modern world are digital in nature, due to the
invention and implementation of fast microprocessors and
systems based on it.

Although in most precise way, it is said that analog systems

have better accuracy while measuring some physical
quantity but in modern world, accuracy of digital systems
can be increase, and even taken near to the level of
accuracy of analog systems, by increasing the resolution of
it.

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Analog and Digital Signals

• Analog signal: Transmitted power varies over

a continuous range. Example: sound, light, and
radio Waves.

• Digital signal: Sequence of voltage pulses

represented in binary form

Computer generated data signal is digital, whereas

telephone lines carry analog signals

Analog and Digital Data Transmission

• When digital data is to be sent over an analog

facility, digital signals must be converted to
analog form
• Conversion of digital signal to analog form is
known as modulation
• Conversion of analog signal to digital form is
known as demodulation
• Digital transmission of data is preferred over
analog transmission of data due to lower cost,
higher transmission speeds, and lower error
rate

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Bit (Binary digits)

• A bit is the smallest unit of data in a computer

• A bit has a single binary value, either 0 or 1
• 8 bits =1 byte.
• Half a byte = 4 bits, is called a nibble
• Octet = 8 bit =1 Byte

In telecommunication, the bit rate is the number of bits that

are transmitted in a given time period, usually a second.

Conversion Table

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Integrated Circuit

• Integrated Circuits are usually called ICs and

popularly known as a silicon chip, computer
chip or microchip.

Integrated Circuit

• It is formed as a single unit by diffusing

impurities into single-crystal silicon, which then
serves as a semiconductor material.
• Several hundred identical integrated circuits
(ICs) are made at a time on a thin wafer several
centimeters wide, and the wafer (thin slice of
semiconductor material) is subsequently sliced
into individual ICs called chips.

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IC Types

• In the early days of integrated circuits, only a

few transistors could be placed on a chip.
• Over time, millions, and today billions, of
transistors could be placed on one chip .This
gave rise to new design methods.

• Integrated circuits are often classified by the

number of transistors and other electronic
components they contain:

IC Types

• SSI (small-scale integration): Up to 100

electronic components per chip.
• MSI (medium-scale integration): From 100 to
3,000 electronic components per chip
• LSI (large-scale integration): From 3,000 to
100,000 electronic components per chip
• VLSI (very large-scale integration): From
100,000 to 1,000,000 electronic components
per chip
• ULSI (ultra large-scale integration): More
than 1 million electronic components per chip.

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Thank You

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