Biology Stage 6

9.4 The Search for Better Health

1. What is a healthy organism?
1.2.1 discuss the difficulties of defining the terms ‘health’ and ‘disease’
Health is the state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing, and not just the absence of
disease. Disease is a condition which prevents the normal functioning of an individual. These definitions
are howeve, extremely broad, and lead to difficulties in defining the terms.
1.2.2 outline how the function of genes, mitosis, cell differentiation and specialization assist in the maintenance
of health
Ÿ Genes code for the synthesis of polypeptides, and consequently proteins. Proteins produced affect
the structure and function of the cell and a required for normal growth and repair, which constitute

Li
the concept of "health".
Ÿ Mitosis is cell division that occurs for repiar, grwoth and reproduction. Cell division that goes out of
control leads to cancerous tumours- which come under the concept of disease.
Ÿ Cell differentation and specialisation allows for various disease fighting cells to be produced

hy
1.3.1 use available evidence to analyse the links between gene expression and maintenance and repair of body
tissues
The gene, when expressed manufactures proteins. If a malfunction or error occurs during meiosis,

ot
mitosis, cell differentiation or incorrect gene expression, then protein manufacture can be altered. The
cell cycle is controlled by DNA repair genes.
m
Ti
ht
ig
yr
op
C
 Biology Stage 6
9.4 The Search for Better Health
2. Over 3000 years ago the Chinese and Hebrews were advocating cleanliness in food, water and
personal hygiene
2.2.1 distinguish between infectious and non-infectious disease
Infectious disease are more precisely known as contagious, while non-infectios diseases are known as
non-contagious. Infectious diseases can be spread from one organism to another by direct or indirect
transmission. Non-infectious diseases however, cannot be spread between organism.
2.2.2 explain why cleanliness in food, water and personal hygiene practices assist in control of disease
Cleanliness in food and water- prevents contamination by pathogens. Methods have to be developed to
prevent decomposition and spoilage of food. Water treatment processes remove many microorganisms

Li
Personal hygiene practices- many diseases can be spread when proper hygiene practices are not
observed.
2.2.3 identify the conditions under which an organism is described as a pathogen
A pathogen is any organism living in or on another organism that is capable of causing disease.

hy
2.3.1 identify data sources, plan and choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to
identify microbes in food or in water
Food and water samples were grown on nutrient agar plates under controlled conditions. Growths were

ot
observed and compared to diagrams/pictures to identify the type of microbes growing.
2.3.2 gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe ways in which drinking water
can be treated and use available evidence to explain how these methods reduce the risk of infection from
m
pathogens
Ÿ Screening- filters out large debris using bars and screens. Large objects containing colonies of
pathogens eliminated
Ti
Ÿ Flocculation- formation of suspended particles settle. Many microbes removed in this process

Ÿ Filtration- water passed through fine sand, gravel and coal filters. It removes nearly all remaining
microbes
Ÿ
ht

Chlorination- addition of chlorine kills off remaining bacteria and microbes

ig
yr
op
C
 Biology Stage 6
9.4 The Search for Better Health
3. During the second half of the nineteenth century, the work of Pasteur and Koch and other scientists
stimulated the search for microbes as causes of disease
3.2.1 describe the contribution of Pasteur and Koch to our understanding of infectious diseases
Pasteur- before Pasteur's time, people believed that concept of spontaneous generation, that life
spontaneously erupted from substances. Pasteur's famous classical experiment led to an increased
understanding of infectious diseases, and led to many of the simple practices we see today, such as
covering food and water, along with appropriate hygiene practices.
Koch- he showed that bacteria was the cause of anthrax and tuberculosis. Koch developed a series of
rules which allow scientists to identify a particular micro-organism as a pathogen, known as Koch's
postulates. His postulates are:

Li
1. the microbe must always be present when disease occurs
2. microbe must be isolated from infected host and grown in pure
cultures
3. pure culture must be able to infect a new health host

hy
4. same microbe must be recovered from new host, and be identical
to the original microbe
3.2.2 distinguish between:
– prions

ot
– viruses
– bacteria
– protozoans
– fungi m
– macro-parasites
and name one example of a disease caused by each type of pathogen
Type of Nature Example
Ti
pathogen
Prions Ÿ abnormal and infectious proteins that causes CJD: Creutzfeld-Jacob
degenerative neurological diseases Disease
Viruses Ÿ RNA of single stranded DNA molecule Smallpox
Ÿ
ht

inserts itself into cells for replication

Bacteria Ÿ Living Tetanus
Ÿ Easy to pass on
Protozoans Ÿ single celled pathogens Malaria
ig

Fungi Ÿ grow in warm, moist areas Tinea (Athlete's foot)

Macro-parasites Ÿ can be seen with naked eye Tapeworms
Ÿ live in or on organism to feed
yr

Ÿ parasite can move from person to person

3.2.3 identify the role of antibiotics in the management of infectious disease
op

Antibiotics are used to combat infectious diseases, but they are only effective against bacterial
infections. They work by killing bacteria, or inhibiting the reproduction of bacteria. The three types of
antibiotics are: broad, narrow and specific spectrum antibiotics- as determined by the types of bacteria
they are designed for.
C

3.3.1 perform an investigation to model or process information to describe Pasteur’s experiment to identify the
role of microbes in decay
Pasteur's classic experiment identified the role of microbes in decay. Broth was placed into two
swan-necked flasks, and one open flask. The broth was boiled to ensure that it was sterile. All three
were left exposed, but one of the swan-necked flasks had its neck broken. The results was that there
was growth in two, but the one with the intact swan-neck did not have growth.
From these results, Pasteur concluded that the microbes in the air settled on the surface and caused
the growth of disease. In another experiment, Pasteur also discovered that microbes were the cause of
spoilage in beer and wine.
 Biology Stage 6
9.4 The Search for Better Health
3.3.2 gather and process information to trace the historical development of our understanding of the cause and
prevention of malaria
Malaria is called by the protozoan Plasmodium and has an insect vector- the female Anopheles
mosquito. Ronald Ross is responsible for identifying the insect vector or malaria- which led to an
increased understanding of the cause and prevention of malaria. Ross discovered in 1897 that by
catching mosquitoes, letting them feed on malarial patients, killing them and examining their stomachs,
that the mosquitoes had tiny black particles (cysts) in the walls of its stomach. He concluded that the
mosquito carried malaria from an infected person to a healthy person.
To prevent malaria, mosquito nets, screens are used to prevent being bitten by mosquitoes. Other
prevention methods include spraying a thin layer of film onto large water bodies to stop larvae from

Li
hatching. Preventative medicines such as quinine can be used for travellers into malaria areas.
3.3.3 identify data sources, gather process and analyse information from secondary sources to describe one
named infectious disease in terms of its:
– cause

hy
– transmission
– host response
– major symptoms
– treatment
– prevention

ot
– control
Cause: variola virus
m
Transmission: spreads from person to person through the air. A smallpox victim expels droplets the
nose and mouth, which another individual inhales and becomes infected. Smallpox also can be spread
through direct contact with infected bodily fluids or contaminated objects such as bedding or clothing.
Ti
Host response: symptoms appear within 10 to 12 days. When the pimples fill with pus, the body's
response is to develop scabs over the pimples. These scabs fall off four weeks later, leaving scars
behind.
Major symptoms: developing of aches, and a high fever. A few days later, a rash appears on the face
and spreads to other parts of the body, resembling thousands of small pimples. During the following
ht

week, the pimples become larger and fill with pus.

Treatment: no specific treatment. Antibiotics often used to treat secondary bacterial infections, and not
smallpox itself- it is a virus and cannot be treated by antibiotics.
ig

Prevention: none, although vaccinations can be taken. However, in the 60's and 70's, mass vaccination
programs were in place to curb the spreading of smallpox.
yr

Control: there are no current control initiatives, as smallpox has been eradicated from the world.
3.3.4 process information from secondary sources to discuss problems relating to antibiotic resistance
op

Antibiotic resistance is now a major problem, as various strains of bacteria are resistant to many once
commonly used antibiotics. This development of resistance has in a sense limited the use of
antibiotics. A serious example of antibiotic-resistant bacterium is Staphylococcus aureus, often referred
to as Golden staph. It becomes a serious problem in hospitals, because personnel can transmit the
disease between patients who are often have weak immune systems.
C

Penicillin, which was discovered just before the war was extremely effective for treating bacterial
infections, as it is an example of broad spectrum antibiotics. However, due to its extensive use, after
10-20 years its effectiveness was lowered. The golden staph resistant bacteria is a direct result of the
overuse of penicillin and development of antibiotic resistance.
 Biology Stage 6
9.4 The Search for Better Health
4. Often we recognise an infection by the symptoms it causes. The immune response is not so obvious,
until we recover
4.2.1 identify defence barriers to prevent entry of pathogens in humans:
– skin
– mucous membranes
– cilia
– chemical barriers
– other body secretions
Skin: contains glands that secrete fatty acids and sweat which are slightly antiseptic.
Mucous membranes: mucus secreted by cells trap bacteria and dust.

Li
Cilia: finger, hair-like projections that line the nose, trachea and bronchi and sweep out bacteria, dust
and mucus with a sweeping motion
Chemical barriers: acidic environment in stomach kills pathogens that enter through food and water.

hy
Other body secretions: tears and saliva contain lysozyme that kills bacteria. Oil glands secrete fatty
acids that inhibit growth
4.2.2 identify antigens as molecules that trigger the immune response

ot
Antigens are molecules that are foreign to the body, and trigger an immune response.
4.2.3 explain why organ transplants should trigger an immune response
Organ transplants should trigger an immune response, because the organ is foreign to the body, and the
m
body will recognise it as an antigen.
4.2.4 identify defence adaptations, including:
– inflammation response
Ti
– phagocytosis
– lymph system
– cell death to seal off pathogen
Inflammation response- characterised by swelling (due to increased pressure from fluid and blood flow),
ht

increased cell permeability to allow white blood cells and fluid to move into tissue, bruising, raised
temperature and pain
Phagocytosis- process by which white blood cells engulf antigens, and secrete chemicals to kill
ig

antigens
Lymph system- it carries the majority of white blood cells, recycles excess body fluids in bloodstream
and white blood cells congregate in lymph nodes
yr

Cell death to seal off pathogen- if the antigen enters the cell, it will often damage the cell itself, causing
the cell to dye. Often the body seals off pathogens in a cyst or within a group of cells, that
consequently die and macrophages clean up the debris.
op

4.3.1 gather, process and present information from secondary sources to show how a named disease results
from an imbalance of microflora in humans
Candidiasis is a disease caused by the fungi Candida albicans. It is one of the natural mico-organisms
of the body, found in the mouth, respiratory tract and female genital tract. When an imbalance occurs,
C

candidiasis occurs. Usually the albicans fungi is kept in balance by competition from other
micro-organisms, but imbalances occur when taking antibiotics or drugs.
 Biology Stage 6
9.4 The Search for Better Health
5. MacFarlane Burnet’s work in the middle of the twentieth century contributed to a better understanding
of the immune response and the effectiveness of immunisation programs
5.2.1 identify components of the third line of defence as:
– antibodies
– T cells
– B cells
Antibodies- chemical/substance that destroys specific antigens; produced by plasma cells
T cells- lymphocytes that mature in the thymus and directly destroy antigens, by secreting substances
that destroy the antigen, or stimulate the activity of phagocytes
B cells- lymphocytes that are stimulated to produce plasma cells, which make antibodies.

Li
5.2.2 describe and explain the immune response in the human body in terms of:
– interaction between B and T lymphocytes
– the mechanisms that allow interaction between B and T lymphocytes
– the range of T lymphocyte types and the difference in their roles

hy
Interaction between B and T lymphocytes- T cells influence and help B cells. Often the T-helper cells
recognise the antigen and initiate the activities of B and T cells.
Mechanisms that allow interaction- the T cell produces a soluble factor after interaction with an antigen
and B cells react with this factor, and its associated antigen to start producing antibodies. Another

ot
model for the interaction is that the T and B cells come directly in contact, and allows the T-cell to send
interleukin (chemical messengers) that signal the B cell to produce antibodies.
Range of T lymphocytes: m
Ÿ killer T cells- secrete perforin or nitric oxide that kills antigens directly, and enhance the activity of
macrophages
Ÿ
Ti
helper T cells- they enhance antibody production by B cells.

Ÿ suppresor T cells- turn off immune response after infection has been controlled

Ÿ memory T cells- retain ability to recognise antigen, so subsequent invasions can be dealt with
ht

5.2.3 outline the way in which vaccinations prevent infection

Vaccinations prevent infection by:
Ÿ
ig

invoking a primary response (vaccination), so that the secondary response (infection) will be much
quicker
Ÿ this causes the person to develop resistance, due to stimulation of antibodies and retaining memory
yr

B cells
5.2.4 outline the reasons for the suppression of the immune response in organ transplant patients
The immune response is often suppressed, because the tissue protein markers (MHC molecules) are
op

not the same, and it triggers the antibody-antigen response. Thus, powerful drugs are given to the
patient to suppress the immune response, so that the tissue will live and become part of their body.
5.3.1 process, analyse and present information from secondary sources to evaluate the effectiveness of
vaccination programs in preventing the spread and occurrence of once common diseases, including smallpox,
C

diphtheria and polio

The vaccination programs used to prevent the spread of once common diseases such as smallpox and
polio were extremely effective. Smallpox has now been eradicated from the world through mass
vaccination programs.
Edward Jenner originally discovered smallpox; and noticed that women who milked cows generally didn't
contract smallpox, because they contracted cowpox and were consequently immunised. He inoculated
children with cowpox. In 1967, the WHO began a program to eradicate smallpox. By 1978, the last
case of smallpox was reported. BY May 1980, the WHO formally announced that smallpox had been
 Biology Stage 6
9.4 The Search for Better Health
eliminated. This had only been achieved through mass vaccination programs, including health workers
and WHO personnel in infected countries that vaccinated people, and isolated smallpox victims.
6. Epidemiological studies involve the collection and careful statistical analysis of large quantities of
data. Such studies assist the causal identification of non-infectious diseases
6.2.1 identify and describe the main features of epidemiology using lung cancer as an example
Epidemiology is the study of patterns of disease, based on the systematic and organised collection,
collation, analysis and interpretation of data. The main features are: to look at who gets the disease,
why they get it, and treatments. The aspects of disease that are recorded are the morbidity and
mortality of disease.

Li
Lung cancer has found to be linked to smoking habits, as 83% of lung cancers are smokers. Passive
smoking, radiation, pollution and asbestos exposure has been linked to lung cancer. The
epidemiological studies reveal that survival rates are higher if lung cancer is detected earlier.
6.2.2 identify causes of non-infectious disease using an example from each of the following categories:

hy
– inherited diseases
– nutritional deficiencies
– environmental diseases
Inherited disease: cystic fibrosis is caused by a gene mutation, and affected individuals must posses

ot
two copies of the mutated genes.
Nutritional deficiencies: bulimia is caused by nutritional deficiencies, inadequate diets
Environmental diseases: heavy metal pollution caused the Minimata disease- in which sea water
m
became polluted with mercury
6.3.1 gather, process and analyse information to identify the cause and effect relationship of smoking and lung
cancer
Ti
Graphs and data were examined to identify the cause and effect relationship, and a correlation exists
between the number of cigarettes smoked a day, and the age at which smoking began with the risk of
getting lung cancer. Generally, cigarette sales have increased, and so have morbidity rates of lung
cancer.
ht

6.3.2 identify data sources, plan and perform a first-hand investigation or gather information from secondary
sources to analyse and present information about the occurrence, symptoms, cause, treatment/management of
a named non-infectious disease
ig

Cystic fibrosis
Occurrence: It affects mainly the Caucasian population
yr

Symptoms:

Ÿ Growths in the nasal passages

op

Ÿ Clubbing (rounding/enlargement) of the fingers and toes

Ÿ Frequent lung and chest infections

Ÿ Cirrhosis of the liver due to inflammation of bile ducts

C

Ÿ buildup of mucus in nasal passages and respiratory tracts

Ÿ pancreatic problems

Cause: a defective CTFR gene causes an imbalance of chloride levels in body cells
Treatment/management:
Ÿ gene therapy

Ÿ antibiotics to kill bacteria that cause lung infections

 Biology Stage 6
9.4 The Search for Better Health
Ÿ mucus-thinning drugs, bronchial airway drainage procedures to cough up the mucus

Ÿ oxygen therapy to loosen up mucus and allow for easier breathing

7. Increased understanding has led to the development of a wide range of strategies to prevent and
control disease
7.2.1 discuss the role of quarantine in preventing the spread of disease and plants and animals into Australia or
across regions of Australia
Quarantine is the process of keeping separate to prevent the spread of diseases. Quarantine in
Australia is regulated by AQIS (Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service). Types of quarantine
procedures are:

Li
Ÿ Border control- clearance by quarantine officers is a major priority

Ÿ Animal Quarantine- all animals must spend a term in specially equipped quarantine stations

Ÿ Plant quarantine- all plants and plant material, including wood products must be examine by officers

hy
Ÿ Human quarantine- a continuous check is kept on all passengers to ensure they are not carrying
infectious diseases
7.2.2 explain how one of the following strategies has controlled and/or prevented disease:

ot
– public health programs
– pesticides
– genetic engineering to produce disease-resistant plants and animals
m
Public health programs- the mass vaccinations programs for smallpox has eliminated it. Other health
program include:
Ÿ "Quit smoking" campaigns to reduce incidence of lung cancer
Ti
Ÿ promotion of hygienic food handling and preservation to reduce food poisoning

Ÿ "Slip, Slop, Slap" campaigns to reduce skin melanoma

7.3.1 perform an investigation to examine plant shoots and leaves and gather first-hand information of evidence of
ht

pathogens and insect pests

Plant shoots and leaves were taken and examined under the microscopes. Evidence of pathogens and
insect pests include:
ig

Ÿ rust on weed

Ÿ insect egg cases and white fungus on ferns

yr

Ÿ black stains and growths on leaves

7.3.2 process and analyse information from secondary sources to evaluate the effectiveness of quarantine in
op

preventing the spread of plant and animal disease into Australia or across regions of Australia
AQIS has been extremely effective in prevent the spread of disease into Australia. It has kept Australia
free of rabies and foot-and-mouth disease. At interstate borders, there also regulations to not bring in
fruit- to prevent the spread of fruit flies across regions of Australia.
C

7.3.3 gather and process information and use available evidence to discuss the changing methods of dealing with
plant and animal diseases, including the shift in emphasis from treatment and control to management or
prevention of disease
A new method to deal with plant and animal disease is gene therapy, as seen in the case of cystic
fibrosis. Genetic engineering is also used to produce disease-free plants and insect resistant crops.
This all highlights the shift in emphasis from treatment and control to the management and more often,
prevention of disease. Prevention measures:
Ÿ flu vaccines each winter