CHAPTER 4 FRICTION, WEAR AND LUBRICATION

In machinery design material and energy conservation is becoming more and more important.We
are going to learn something basic about friction, wear and lubrication in this chapter.
Basic Concept
Friction——The twisting force that resists relative motion between two bodies in contact
Friction force——The resistance because of friction
wear——to exhaust or lessen the strength gradually by friction
lubrication——appending grease in the interface of friction as a film between solid surfaces to
reduce friction, heat and wear and make smooth or slippery.
Tribology——a study that deals with the design, friction, wear, and lubrication of interacting
surfaces in relative motion
Several statistical data :
1. 1/3~1/2 of the energy in the world is used up in friction.
2. 30% of the failure in machine elements is caused by wearing.
3. Applying the knowledge and technique of tribology in the production , we will get the economic
benefit which is about 2%~7% of GDP
4.1 FRICTION
Friction is a principle cause of energy dissipation and the improved friction control can guarantee
considerable savings.
Classifications of Friction:
internal friction : inside the material
external friction: on contact surface
1.Classified by trend of relative movement
static friction: sliding friction (eg: sliding bearing ,belt)
kinetic friction: rolling friction (eg: rolling bearing, cam)
2. Classified by friction condition (or is there any lubricant)
(1)Dry friction: no anti-friction material or safety film
(2)Boundary friction : two parts separated by boundary film
(3)Liquid friction: two parts separated by fluid film
(4)Mixed fiction: mixture of the three

(1)Dry friction
①friction mechanism
a. coulomb's law in 18 century F=fFn
Trait: simple, powerful utility, in addition to liquid friction the equation suit for every condition,
but it only used in the open surface.
eg：belt drive, flank of thread friction and working in interference, etc.
b. Molecule---Machinery theory
It is believed that the friction between two dry surfaces arises from two main sources, adhesion
and deformation ,and the most important is adhesion. mathematical expression:
F=Fa+Fm=(fa+fm)Fn
among this
fa——adhesion component of friction coefficient
fm——machinery component of friction
coefficient
Molecul——Machinery theory
satisfactorily explains the friction between metal in
macroscopy.
Conclusion: The value of friction is foreign to
contact area, is only directly proportional with the
load and friction coefficient.
②.the factors that influence the friction
coefficient.
1) The characteristic of paired material:
If the friction pair is made of the same metal or have great intersolubility, it will conglutination
easily, so fa↑，f↑
eg1: In the design of gear drive, the driver and the engaged wheel always are made of different
material ,or are made of the same material in different hardness.
eg2: In the design of sliding bearing and the worm drive, we should choose the anti-attrition and
hard wearing material.
2) Is there any safety film or lubricant between solid surfaces
when the contacted surfaces suffer from pollution or oxidization, the safety film will be formed. It
can decrease the attraction between the molecule of two material, caused Fa↓ ， this film has low
strength of shear, so Fm↓
3）temperature
General speaking, the influence of ambient temperature of f is neglectful. As the temperature arise
it will decrease ,but once reach the high temperature the oil film will fracture, the material will
temper, the component of conglutination will increase.
4）relative sliding speed
When V<30m/s，the influence of f is very little
When V>30m/s V↑ ， f↓ (the rising temperature affect the machinery characters of exterior
material)
5）smooth finish
when smooth finish in common value, smooth finish↑， f↓
when smooth finish in high value, f ↑
(2)Boundary Friction
Classify the film based on the form principle of film:
physical adsorption film
chemiadsorption film
chemical reaction film
① physical adsorption film
Long chain hydrocarbon molecules of lubricant are adsorbed by the molecule of metal and then
formed the physical adsorption film on the surface of metal.When the temperature is high, the
boundary film will break down.The boundary film is suit for low speed and light load.
② chemiadsorption film
Under the action of chemical bond, the molecules of lubricant attach to the surface of the metal,
and then formed the chemiadsorption film.It is more steady than physical adsorption.
③ chemical reaction film
Under the high temperature(150°~200°),the sulfur, chlorine and phosphorus will occur chemical
reaction with metal, formed compound , and then form the chemical reaction film on the interface of
oil and metal . Having low shear strength and high melting point, so it is steady and suit for high
speed and heavy load.The friction discipline of boundary lubrication is identical to the unlubricated
friction ,the only difference is the value of f is less.（falittle）

(3)Liquid friction
When friction is carry through the molecule of liquid F≈0.001~0.008,there is nearly no wearing
on the surface.
eg：the friction of dynamic or hydrostatic lubrication sliding bearing
(4)Mixed friction
Definition: when the friction condition is between the boundary friction and fluid friction, we
always use the thickness of the film to determine the friction condition.
thickness of the oil film
λ=
arithmetic average deviation of the two surface outline
Generally speaking ：
λ<1 boundary friction
λ=1~3 mixed friction
λ〉3 liquid friction
In the mechanical transmission, the majority condition of friction surface is mixed friction.

4.2 WEAR
Wear is a major cause of material wastage, so any reduction of wear can affect considerable
savings.
wear: The friction will cause the displacement and removal of surface material, so wear can cause
the failure of the element, which is in 70 to 80 percent of the total failure.
The harm caused by wear:
① influence the performance quality of machine；
eg: The wear of the gear tooth surface will destroy the involute tooth surface, and then cause the
impact and vibration.
The wear of the machinery mainshaft bearing will influence the machining precision of element.
② impaired the efficiency of machine;
eg: The wear of cylinder sleeve of the diesel engine’s will cause inadequate functioning of power.
③ reduced the reliability of machine:
eg：snaggletooth ，wheeltrack
The Wear Process
Three Phases of Machine Wear:
1 running-in
 time: the initial stages of wear
characteristic: high rate of wear( the contact area is small, so the contact stress is large.)the
function of running-in: the material of high spots will be deformed, so the contact area becomes
sufficiently large to support the load. It is a process that gradually to load, gradually to speed.
attention to running-in：
a. load from light load to heavy load should be slow.
b. the lubricant should prevent from pollution; should replace after running-in.

② steady wear phase:

time：late stage of running-in, long-lasting; In the working stage of machine (stand for the useful
time)
characteristic: the speed of wear of slow-motion and reposeful
eg：the cylinder sleeve of locomotive and diesel engine replace every period
③ severe wear phase:
time：late stage of normal wear (late stage of life)
characteristic ： rate of wear will speed up, so the failure of surface element will occur or the
clearance of kinematic pair will augment
Classification of Wear

Adhesive wear

Abrasive wear
Based on
mechanism Fatigue wear

Corrosive wear
The type of
wear

Pitting
Based on exterior Gluing
appearance

Brush-burn
1. Adhesive wear
The asperity of friction surface after cold welding
the material will transfer to another surface when there is
relative sliding, that is called adhesive wear.
2. Abrasive wear
The wear is because of the dissociated rigid particles
or the peak of asperity
Influenced factor：
(1)The harder the material is ,the higher the staying
quality is.
(2)The wearing capacity is increasing along with the
augment of the particles’ size.
(3)The wearing capacity is increasing along with the augment of the hardness of the paticles.

3.Fatigue wear(pitting)
It occurs when there is a slight vibratory movement among loaded surfaces in contact and which
manifests itself by the pitting of the surfaces and accumulation of oxidized debris. The debris
occupies a greater volume than that of the metaldestroyed and in a limited space.

Influenced factors：
(1)The harder of the element surface is, the safer of the fatalness of the endurance crack is;
(2)When the value of the roughness concentration is comparatively large, the probability of element
fatigue is increased;
(3)When the viscosity of oil is quite low, the probability of element fatigue is increased.
4. Fluid and cavitation erosion
It is caused by small drops of liquid including rigid particles can occur in steam turbines add fast
flying aircraft though the impact of water droplets causing plastic depressions on the surface.
eg: processing the exiguous curvilinear holes
5. Corrosive Wear
The acid and fuel from the air combusting to little inorganic acid (like sulphuric acid), and the
chemistry or electrochemical action of water together cause the lessening of the surface of material.
Summary：
Take note of design:
(1)Improve the rigidity, surface finish quality and the strength of material
(2)Choose the appropriate lubricant, and add refinements such as gland bush and filtering apparatus.

main index
1.Penetration Number: signing the
value of the essential resistance and
flow properties. The cone of G=1.5N, the
stuck depth in1.5S.
2. Drop Point: signing the fireresistant
capability of grease lubricant.In the
regulated condition, the temperature at
which the first drop of the grease from the
hole of the standard cup.
lubrication method
1.Periodical manual application of
lubricant —low velocity, light load or
discontinuous running .
little Quantity of oil
nozzle tip, oil cup and oil gun
2.Oil bath, oil control ring and splash
lubrication— the important machine of
midvelocity, moderate duty.
Supply the oil without interruption, and
cool off circumferential velocity of
rotating part is1m/s ≤ v ≤ 10 ～
15m/s
The lubricant of the positive speed
gearbox
3. Mist lubrication —gear and
bearing of high velocity and low load
gear ： circumferential velocity is v
＞ 5～15m/s
bearing ： dn ＞
600000mm·r/min(d bearing bore
diameter, n working speed )
Form of oil mist lubrication
device ： Thrust jet, straw and oil
regulator mist lubrication device
4. Forced feed lubrication —the
important element of high speed, heavy
load and high quantity of fuel oil
supply.
 Headstock of the machine tool, internal-combustion engine forging and pressing equipment .
Form of forced feed system: lubricating press, gasoline tank, filter, cooler ,pressure control valve
(PCV) and fuel-flow control valve ,etc.
A－lubricating press, B－filter, C－cooler, D－holding valve , E—manometer, F－fuel-flow control
valve, G－pressure regulating valve, T－oil sink

4.4 AIRPROOF
—prevent the leak of the
liquid, gas or lubricant, and
the enter in the lubricated
part of the dust and
moisture
selection of airproof
Select the type and the
structure of the economic
reasonable airproof is based
on the working condition
like pressure, velocity and
working temperature(14-4).
Standard and specification of airproof is generally normative, so in the design we generally choose
the stan-
dard element. Forced feed system of positive speed gearbox
generally normative, so in the design we generally choose the standard element.
The airproof can be classified to silent seal and moving seal, basing on whether there is relative
movement on the airproofed surface.
1. Silent seal
Under clamping pressure of the bolt on the neat and glabrous junction surface, the surfaces are
press against each other to airproof.
In common, the clearance of the clamping pressure should be less than 5µm, and need lapped
finish.

Silent seal
2. Moving Seal
The stuffing produce the radial force to enclasp the shaft
Simple structure, it only suit for low speed (v ＜ 4 ～ 5m/s), and its main function in grease
lubrication is dustproof.

felt seal

O-ring seal J-ring seal U-ring seal

Obturating ring seal—obturating ring is made of elastic material. The function of seal is supported
by it own elasticity or pressing force of the spring.
Mechanical Seal (mechanical (end face) seal)

slit seal
The seal is supported by the contact between the graphite block and the rotatingdisc.Make use of
the throttling effect of the throttling groove to dustproof and caulk.
Labyrinth seal
 axial type radial type
Grease lubrication or oil lubrication: the rotate speed of the shaft is high, but its working
temperature must under the drop point of the lubricative grease.
Making the clearance between the revolving part and still part as labyrinth, fill the clearance of
lubricant to strength the result of the seal.
Reliable seal, sealing element not easy to damage, but the structure is complex.
Axial type: considering the elongated of the shaft, the axial clearance choose the large value, 1．5
～2mm。
Radial type: diametral clearance <0．1—0．2mm。
Centrifugal seal
Overcome the leakiness by the centrifugal force of liquid.

Thackeray washer seal——prevent the lubricating oil from marching off by the lubricating grease.
Slinger oil seal — oil lubrication
Lathing groove or installing oil slinger on the shaft to sling the oil in the radial direction, and
then reflow from the oil hole and the oil gathering reservoir.

The shaft must whirl in the orient

Combination seal
Clearance + labyrinth seal ——one of the combination seal, bringing each merit into fullplay may
improve the result of the seal.