Definition of Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction is the process in which new organisms are

created, by combining the genetic information from two
individuals of different sexes. The genetic information is carried
on chromosomes within the nucleus of specialized sex cells
called gametes. In males, these gametes are called sperm and in
females the gametes are called eggs. During sexual reproduction
the two gametes join together in a fusion process known
as fertilization, to create a zygote, which is the precursor to
an embryo offspring, taking half of its DNA from each of its
parents. In humans, a zygote contains 46 chromosomes: 23 from
its mother and 23 from its father. The combination of these
chromosomes produces an offspring that is similar to both its
mother and father but is not identical to either.

Phenotype traits, such as physical adaptions to an organism’s

environment and genotype traits, such as resistance to disease,
are passed down from each parent during sexual
reproduction. Natural selection, whereby individuals with
favorable adaptions to their environment are able to survive and
successfully reproduce, drives the evolution process. Sexual
reproduction increases the diversity of genotypes and phenotypes
within a population, allowing natural selection to select for the
individuals best suited to an environment.
Sexual reproduction differs from asexual reproduction, which only
requires one parent. In asexual reproduction, unlike sexual
reproduction, there is no fusion of gametes, so the offspring are
genetically identical to their parents and are therefore clones.
Asexual reproduction does occur in some animals, although it is
rare; most asexual reproduction occurs in bacteria, fungi, starfish,
corals, hydras (jellyfish) and some flowering plants such as
strawberries.

Types of Sexual Reproduction

Allogamy
Allogamy occurs when the gametes which join together during
fertilization come from two different individuals. The
female gamete is usually in the form of an egg or ovum while the
male gamete takes the form of a sperm. Both egg and sperm are
cells specialized to perform the task of reproduction; each
sex cell contains only 23 chromosomes (these are
called haploid cells) rather than the normal 46 chromosomes
present in other cells of the body. The two haploid cells fuse
together to create a diploid cell which then undergoes mitosis, in
order to grow and form an individual organism. Mitosis is the
division of one cell into two, after the DNA has been replicated
within the nucleus.

Because genes of individuals are passed down through sexual

reproduction, and survival of genes is controlled by natural
selection, individuals are driven to choose mates based on their
ability to produce offspring likely to survive and live to reproduce
themselves. It is therefore in each individual’s best interests to
find a mate with qualities such as good health, aggression, speed
and agility to survive fights, and qualities that will help the
offspring attract future mates. The genetic and phenotypic
diversity produced by sexual reproduction allows individuals to
choose mates based on best display of these characteristics. The
choices given to sexually
reproductive species causes competition between individuals and
means that usually only those individuals who display desired
traits are able to pass on their genes. This is known as sexual
selection.

Sexual selection also leads to sexual dimorphism, whereby males

and females of the same species differ greatly in appearance. As
the females are usually responsible for protecting the offspring
after birth, they are often camouflaged with dull colors,
comparative to males, which often display bright colors and
exaggerated body parts (such as large horns or antlers). Often
these sexually selected characteristics can conflict with the
survival ability of the animals. For example, bright colors that
attract females may also attract predators. Nonetheless, the
desire to mate is strong and so these characteristics persist and
increase within populations.
Internal Fertilization

Internal fertilization is the fertilization of the egg by the sperm within the
body of one of the parents, usually by means of sexual intercourse.
Internal fertilization usually takes place within the female body, after the
male implants sperm. However there are exceptionally rare examples, such
as seahorses (Sygnathidae), where the female implants her eggs into the
male and the zygote is formed within the male’s body.

The next step in internal fertilization depends on the species. Some

creatures, such as birds, insects and reptiles, then lay an egg containing
the cells, which are undergoing mitosis, and a reserve of yolk to feed and
support growth of the embryo. After a period of time (often having been
incubated) a fully formed individual will hatch from the egg. This is known
as oviparity.

The embryos of most mammal species grow and develop within the body
of their mother, resulting in the live birth of a fully formed offspring: this is
called viviparity. Embryos are supported by the placenta, which provides
nutrient uptake, waste removal and thermo-regulation in placental
organisms (most mammals). Alternatively, marsupial offspring (for
example, koalas and kangaroos) are removed from inside the mother’s
body after a short gestation period and complete their development within
an external pouch on the front of the mother’s body.

A third form of development is ovoviviparity, in which embryos develop in

eggs stored within the body of the parent until they are ready to hatch,
giving the appearance of a live birth.
External Fertilization

External fertilization occurs when a sperm cell and an egg cell join outside
of the body. Most amphibians and fish and many invertebrates use external
fertilization, producing anything from hundreds to billions of gametes at a
time into close proximity. The quick release of gametes into aquatic
environments this is called spawning. However, sometimes females will lay
eggs on a particular substrate which are subsequently fertilized by males.

The sex cells of creatures which reproduce through external fertilization

often have special adaptions for movement, such as the addition of
strong flagella for independent movement.

Autogamy

Autogamy, also known as self-fertilization or self-pollination, is the fusion

of male and female gametes, which are produced by a single individual.
Species which are able to produce both male and female gametes are
called hermaphrodites.

Although autogamy is similar to asexual reproduction, in that there is no

input of genetic diversity from a partner, the recombination of
chromosomes from the male and female gametes results in offspring with
slightly altered genetic information, which can therefore look phenotypically
different from their parents. Most plants and earthworms reproduce by
autogamy. It is sometimes possible for hermaphrodites to reproduce with
other hermaphrodites. In this case, genetic diversity does increase within
the population.
Advantages of Sexual Reproduction
Deleterious mutations accumulate within DNA over time, through cell
mitosis. Organisms which produce asexually simply pass these mutations
on to their offspring, while organisms which combine their DNA through
sexual reproduction allow only a portion of their deleterious mutations to
pass to their offspring, increasing their chances of survival. This effect is
increased through natural selection, where individuals with exceptionally
harmful mutations are unable to pass on their genes through sexual
reproduction.

Increased diversity of genes within a population also allows natural

selection to improve an organism’s ability to adapt to environmental
changes. Random mutations, which are of no use to one generation, may
become key to survival in future generations under a change of
environmental pressures. This is the driving force behind speciation.