CHAPTER-1

Hydrocarbon Indications

Drilling mud, which is pumped down the drill pipe during drilling, serves several

purposes. One purpose is to transport drill cuttings from the bit to the surface

where cuttings are separated before the mud is re-circulated. Drillers or geologists

can analyze the cuttings and monitor the minute quantities of hydrocarbon gases

evolved from these cuttings. The oil industry generally refers to this service as mud

logging.

Hydrocarbons detected in the circulated mud indicate that the bit has

penetrated a hydrocarbon reservoir. When data is captured in precise detail, at one

foot increments, reservoir parameters can be estimated with reasonable accuracy.

These parameters define the commercial value of the reservoir by its porosity,

saturation, permeability, pore pressure, and vertical thickness. These are estimated

and logged for each vertical foot while drilling is in progress.

Wire cable-conveyed tools have performed reservoir evaluation since mid 1930.

These tools examine a short distance into the formation using response to nuclear

stimulation, sonic travel time, and electrical resistivity. Since these logs are run

several days after a potential reservoir is drilled, mud invasion always influences the

measurements. Mud filters through the porous rock, flushing hydrocarbons away

from the well bore. Clay-laden filtrate replaces the hydrocarbons, and the well bore

is plugged with drill solids until filtration ceases. Since the solids invasion is poorly
defined, the wire line formation evaluation can be misleading.

The interpretive procedures explained in this report rely on direct hydrocarbon

detection and analyses while drilling a formation. These mud log analyses complement

conventional wire line logging with quality interpretations from independent

measurements.

There exists more then one test to indicate hydrocarbon existence in the

drilling samples:

-Smelling

-Staining

-Bleeding

-Oil on Mud stream

-Solvent Cut Test

-Acetone Test

-Fluorescense Test

-Gas Chromatograph Test

First four items are not actual tests, but rather ways of indicating hydrocarbon

existence. They are not based on quantitative results and they just serve as

observation of samples. Both Solvent Cut Test and Acetone Test are done in

laboratory conditions and are used for obtaining information about the

characteristics of detected hydrocarbon. Fluorescence Test and Gas Chromatograph

Tests are the most widely used and developed technologies in the industry as they

give detailed information about the hydrocarbon potential. Both tests serve as the

basis for mud logging and therefore are our main subject of interest.
Smelling

It is the easiest way to detect the hydrocarbon, provided that the oil amount on the

cuttings of core samples is high. Intensity of the smell serves as an indication of the

amount of hydrocarbon present in the core sample.

Staining

The technique has a base of observation of the color and distributions only on the

cores. If the oil has higher API gravity, the observation is easier and more reliable.

Bleeding

The oil, if exists, can be removed by the help of a centrifuge. Removed oil can be

inspected for its composition.

Oil on Mud stream

If floating oil droplets are observed in the mud tanks, it is a very high chance that an

oil zone has been reached.

Solvent Cut Test

By the use of Solvent Cut Test, Heavier Hydrocarbons can be detected. Chlorethene

is mixed with the rock and after a short duration color is observed.

-Place 3 cm. freshly crushed rock in a test tube.

-Add chlorothene up to 1 c. above crushed sample. Shake well.

-After 15-20 minutes observe coloration of solvent. Use grading 0-5.

Acetone test

Colourless light oil or condensate will often not fluoresce under ultraviolet light, but

detected as follows, provided the sample does not contain carbonaceous or lignitic

matter.

-A powdered rock sample is placed in a dry test tube; acetone is added and mixed

well.

-After 15-20 minute, fluid is filtered and excess of distilled water added to the

filtered fluid.

Acid test

The presence of oil in calcareous cuttings can often be detected by dropping them

into weak acid (10 % HCl). Te reaction of the acid on a cutting, stained even faintly,

may form relatively large bubbles, which adhere to the cuttings and cause it to rise

on the surface.

MUD LOGGING

The main services which can be provided by Mud Logging contractors:

Mud Logging
-Collection, description and time lag correction of rock samples obtained during

drilling

-Hydrocarbon show detection

-Gas detection

- Total Gas Recorder

- Gas Chromatograph
Mud Monitoring
-Mud pit levels

-Mud Temperature

-Mud weight

-Pump stroke counter

-Mud flow

-Trip tank levels

Drilling Monitoring
-Rate of penetration

-Rotary RPM

-Hook load/ weight on bit

-Rotary torque

-Stand pipe pressure

Alarm Systems
-H2S detector and mud pit level recorder etc.

Time Lag

Time lag can be defined as the time required for the cuttings to travel from the

bottom of the hole to the shale shaker. Time lag should be known at any time during

the drilling of a hole in order to assign correct sample depth to the cuttings which

are sampled at the shale shaker.

There are two main methods to determine time lag.

Tracer Method

When a drill pipe connection is made tracer material is placed in the open end of the

drill pipe and after resuming the drilling operation the time/number of pump strokes

are recorded for the tracer material to arrive over the shale shaker.

Calculation Method

In this method it is necessary to calculate

-The annular volume (between the drill pipes and the wall of the hole)

-The volume in the drill pipes and drill collars

-The rate of circulation derived from the pump output.

The total volume of the mud (in drill pipe/drill collars + annular volume) is divided by

the pump output to arrive at a Total Circulation Time (1)

The drill pipe/drill collar volume is divided by the pump output to obtain down hole

Circulation Time (2)

The Uphole Circulation Time (Time lag) is obtained by subtracting (2) from (1); this

can be expressed in Number of Pump strokes. In this method slip factor and

oversized hole effects are ignored. Trip and Connection gas can be used as a check on

the calculated Time lag. An example is also given below calculating the time lag with

this method.
Example

Output of 2 mud pumps, each pumping 40 strokes/min.

Output/stroke = 0.25 bbl

Pump output = 0.25 × 40 × 2 = 20 bbls/min.

a) Volume in drill pipes and drill collars 80 bbls

b) Annular volume - drill pipe in casing 560 bbls

- drill pipes and collars 200 bbls

in open hole

Total Annular Volume 500 + 260 = 760 bbls

Total Hole Volume 760 + 80 = 840 bbls

Total Circulation Time 840/20 = 42 min.

Downhole Circulation Time 80/20 = 4 min.

Uphole Circulation Time 760/20 = 38 min. (Time Lag)

Uphole Number of Pump strokes 760/0.25 = 3040 strokes

Terms Used in Description of Types of Gas in Drilling Fluid1

Total Gas

Measurement of the total combustible hydrocarbon gasses which are present in the

mud flow.

Background Gas

This is the “normal” or “average” gas reading while drilling low permeable rocks such

as shales.

Connection Gas

When a Connection is being made the mud in the borehole is in dynamically stable

condition. Thus any gas seeping into the borehole will gradually accumulate. When

circulation is resumed this Connection Gas may show at the surface on the gas

detection equipment as a sharp peak of short duration above the general background

gas level.

Trip Gas

The accumulation of Trip Gas has the same origin as Connection Gas. A trip involves

the removal of part or the complete drill string from the borehole. During the pulling

of the string swabbing may occur which reduces the mud’s hydrostatic head,

especially in the area just below the bit. This may draw gas from porous intervals.
This Trip Gas like Connection Gas also shows as short sharp peak above the

background level.

Cuttings Gas

This is the gas in the pore spaces of the cuttings which has not escaped during the

transport in the mud to the surface. Cuttings from very permeable rocks will have

lost most, if not all of its gas, whilst cuttings with low permeability will allow little or

no gas to escape to the mud. The cuttings are placed in a blender with water and

subsequently liquidized. A sample of the gas in the blender is injected into the Gas

Chromatograph and the results compared with the analysis of the mud gas.

This example recorded on a C 301 recorder shows the total gas and the mud density

out curves when resuming drilling after a trip. The trip gas is rather important (27%)

and required a scale change at 2326,5 meters. The output mud density at the surface

shows an increase due to the arrival of cuttings followed by a decrease when the gas

passes in front of the Gamma Densimud detector head.

Between 2330 and 2333 meters only the background gas is present. At 2334 meters

one can notice the arrival of the recycled trip gas after one complete lag time cycle.

The marks on the right margin of the chart are the depth marks. The recording scale

is linear.
 Major Applications of Total Gas Measurements

I. Hydrocarbon show evaluation

A significant increase in Total Gas readings over an interval indicates that this

interval contains hydrocarbons, but doe not give an indication about the quantity of

the hydrocarbons present.

However an increased reading, combined with a potentially permeable and porous

lithology, is positive indications which requires further investigation (Gas

chromatograph results and cuttings to be checked with Fluoroscope and solvents)

II. Pressure detection

The Total Gas readings often provide information about changes in pressure

conditions in the borehole and the following observations from readings could be

made:

-Increasing Background Gas usually indicates increasing formation pressures.

-Connection Gas usually indicates a close to “balanced” mud system.

-Abnormally high Trip Gas usually indicates a close to “balanced” mud system.

-Abnormally high gas readings which can not be correlated to permeable intervals

usually indicate an “under-balanced” mud system.

 Origin of Gas in Drilling Mud

I. The drilling bit grinding rocks which contains rocks: The action of the drill bit

destroys the rock and opens or exposes the pore spaces and allows the gas to

enter the drilling mud. As the cuttings which contain gas in their pores are

circulated to the surface, the reduced hydrostatic pressure allows more gas to

escape from the cuttings.

II. Reservoir gas entering the drilling mud: If the hydrostatic pressure exerted by

the drilling mud is less than the reservoir pressure, the gas from the reservoir

can filter into the borehole and can eventually develop into a gas kick. (More info

about kick detection can be found in Alarm Systems Section)

III. Contamination: Generally when drilling with oil-based mud’s a small and constant

amount of gas is recorded, resulting from the oil based mud.

Calculated Gas Saturation (CGS)

Calculated Gas Saturation is the ratio of the volume of gas under reservoir conditions

to the total volume of the rock.

CGS = PSS[(Tu × Pa)/Ta × Pu)] × Z × 100

Tu and Pu are respectively the absolute temperature and pressure of the layer

Ta and Pa are respectively the absolute temperature and pressure at the surface

Z is calculated by the Katz method (Katz diagram).

To use this chart critical temperature and critical pressure of the mixture should be

known. To calculate Z, the reduced temperature and reduced pressure should be

known.

Tr = Tu/Tc and Pr = Pu/Pc

Example

Given Parameters

-Depth: 3000 meters

-Formation temperature: 97°C = 370°K

-Formation pressure: 33.9 Mpa (1Mpa = 10 bars)

-Ambient temperature: 24°C = 297°K

-Ambient pressure: 0.1013 Mpa

-IPS: 1.1
 Composition Mol Frac. % Tc(°K) Pc(Mpa) Mole Frac × Tc Mol Frac × Pc

C1 0.74 191 4.68 141.34 3.46

C2 0.08 305 4.88 24.40 0.39

C3 0.10 370 4.24 37.00 0.424

Iso-C4 0.04 408 3.65 8.16 0.073

Nor-C4 0.12 425 3.79 25.50 0.225

Total 1.00 Tc = 236.40 Pc = 4,572

Tr = 370/236,4 = 1,565

Pr = 33,9/4,572 = 7,4

Z = 0.95

CGS = 1.1 × [(370 × 0.1013)/(297 × 33.9)] × 0.955 × 100 = 0.389

Gas Ratio Analysis

The comparison of relative concentrations of the various hydrocarbon species seen in

a chromatogram (C1 - C5) often has diagnostic value in qualitatively estimating the type

and quality of a petroleum reservoir. Such a comparison has also been useful in

stratigraphic correlation, where a distinct and characteristic hydrocarbon boundary

may be recognized, even when no lithological facies boundary is evident. The study of

relative concentrations of light alkanes has been done by various people to evaluate

maturity levels and migration modes of petroleum reservoirs. Studies of n- and iso-
heptane ratios have been conducted to determine maturity and thermal history

classifications of petroleum. Ratio studies of C2 - C4 and especially the butane isomers

have been used to determine the effect of diffusion in primary migration and the

possible maturity trends shown by theses studies. These studies, however draw on

data not readily available in normal well site logging, and practically all gas ratio

studies performed at the well site are used to determine the type and quality of

petroleum reservoirs. Such studies are mathematical treatments of the hydrocarbon

species (C1 - C5) using relative concentrations such as C2/C1, C3/C1, etc. Plots from

these studies will often yield distinctive “character” or “events” not always

immediately evident from the chromatogram itself. Two such ratio methods used are

the “Rectangular Plot” and the “Triangular Plot”. Though originally designed for

steam-still reflux mud or DST samples, then have been adapted for gas trap readings.

When using either plot, the following corrections must be made:

Removal of all contamination gas readings, such as diesel, trip gas, connection gas,

recycled gas

Correction for background gas. The relative concentrations must be read above

background gas

More than one reading must be done to have any interpretative value
Rectangular Plots

The rectangular plot uses the ratios C1/C2, C1/C3, C1/C4 and C2/C3 (or C1/C5) and plots

the results on a semi-logarithmic grid.

Ratio Oil Gas Unproductive

C1/C3 2-10 10-35 <2 and >35

C1/C3 2-14 14-82 <2 and >82

C1/C4 2-21 21-200 <2 and >200

Several “rules of thumb” for the rectangular plot are:

-Productive dry gas zones will yield mainly (or only) methane. However, abnormally

high ratios may indicate gas in solution in a water zone.

-If C1/C2 falls in the oil section, but C1/C4 is high in the gas section, the zone may be

non productive.

-If any ratio is lower than the preceding ratio, the zone is probably nonproductive.

-If C1/C4 is lower than C1/C3, the zone is probably water wet.

Triangular Plots

The triangular plot requires the calculation of the ratios C2, C3 and nC4 to the total

of all gases detected (expressed as a percentage). Lines representing those

percentages are then drawn on a triangular grid. As with the rectangular plot, all gas

percentages are taken above background.

-If the apex of the triangle is up, gas is indicated - the smaller the up apex triangle,

the more water wet the gas.

-If the apex is down, oil is indicated - the larger the down-apex triangle, the heavier

the oil.

-If the intersection of the lines between B to B' and A to A' occurs within the

plotted ellipse, the zone is considered to be productive.

RATE OF RENETRATION

rate of penetration is defined as the time required drilling a unit length of formation

or the length of formation drilled during a unit time and is expressed as.

Minutes-per-foot min/ft or Feet-per-hour ft/hr

Minutes-per-meter min/m Meters-per-hour m/hr

The presentations of the ROP curve is mostly in the form of a bar graph plot and is

made instantaneously while the bit progresses. The ROP is affected by several

parameters, the understanding of these parameters and how they effect the drilling

rate is crucial in interpreting ROP curve.

-Lithology and Rock matrix strength

-WOB (Weight on bit)

-RPM (Revolution per minute)

-Bit, size, type and condition

-Hydraulics ( cutting removal efficiency of drilling fluid)

-Differential pressure (Hydrostatic pressure minus formation pressure.

The following additional information is indicated on ROP graph:

-WOB

-RPM

-Pump pressure

-Bit (Type, size and condition)

The ROP graph often provides very useful information about changes in lithology. A

sharp increase or decrease in the drilling rate often coincides with a change in

lithology; however, changes in lithology are known to have occurred without any

change in the drilling rate. Thus the interpretation of the ROP curve in terms of

definition of boundaries of lithology should always be checked with information from

cuttings, gas recorder etc.

Terminology of ROP Curve

Shale Baseline: The trend of the ROP curve over long sections of a predominant

lithology is used as baseline. Deflections from that baseline could than reflect other

lithology than the major lithology. In a sand/shale sequence the shale trend is used as

a baseline where as in a carbonate/evaporate sequence the limestone trend is mostly

used as a baseline.
Drilling Break: A drilling break is an abrupt increase in the ROP. It is usually

considered to be two or more times greater than the baseline average. Drilling breaks

usually indicate changes in lithology, although they may also indicate sudden formation

pressure increase that might be encountered when a fault is crossed.

Reversed Drilling Break: A reversed drilling break is an abrupt decrease in ROP.

They can mean lithology changes but also occur when strongly cemented intervals are

penetrated.

Compaction Trend: As the overburden pressures and geological age of the rocks

increase with depth, the rocks generally become more compacted. This compaction

trend can sometimes be seen by observing the ROP curve over long intervals.

Dulling Trends: Bit wear and consequently progressively less penetration can show up

on the ROP curve as uniform decrease in the drilling response that slope away from

the baseline.

Drill-off Tend: A drill-off trend is a gradual, usually uniform, increase in the ROP. It

is usually indicates a “Pore pressure transition zone” where pore pressures are

increasing.