Types of Measurement Scale and Scaling techniques

Levels and Formats of Measurement Scales; Different Types of Rating Scales

Measurement means assigning numbers or some other symbols to the characteristics of certain objects. It focus on
3 things:
Order, distance and origin.
Order: numbers are ordered, one number is greater than or less than etc.
Distance: Differences between numbers are ordered.
Origin: The number series has a unique origin indicated by the number zero.

Scaling is an extension of measurement. Scaling involves creating a continuum on which measurement objects are
located. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 11 to each respondent whereas the scaling is
the process of placing the respondent on a continuum with respect to their satisfaction towards objects.
Types of Measurement Scale
• Nominal Scale: Numbers are assigned for the purpose of identification of the objects. Each number is
assigned to only one which is assigned a lower number.
Examples of Nominal Scale:
Q1. Are You Married a)Yes b)No
Q2.What is your religion ?
A) Hindu b)Sikh c)Islam d) Any Other.
Statistical analysis like frequency distribution, mode, chi square test can be done on the nominal scale .
2. Ordinal Scale: A ordinal scale measurement tells whether an object has more or less of characteristics than
some other objects.
Example:
Rank the following attributes while choosing a restaurant for dinner. Most important attribute to be Ranked 1 and
next Rank 2 and so on.
Attribute Rank
Food quality
Prices
Menu Variety
Ambience
Services
Statistical analysis : median, percentiles, quartiles, correlation coefficient, sign test

3.Interval scale: Respondent is able to answer the questions on a continuum scale.

How likely are you to buy a new designer carpet in the next six months?
Very unlikely Unlikely Neutral Likely Very Likely
1 2 3 4 5
How important is price to you while buying a car?
Least Important Unimportant Neutral Important Most Important
1 2 3 4 5
The counter clerk at ICICI are very friendly?
Strongly disagree Disagree Neither agree nor disagrre agree Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
Statistical analysis
AM,SD,Correlation coefficient,t-tets,z-test, regression, factor analysis
4.Ratio Scale
How many chemist shop are there in you locality ?
How many MBA students are there in MVA programme in IBCS
Statistical analysis : GM, HM.
Validity : this refers to ability of the scale to measure what it is supposed to measure.
Reliability: a scale should give an accurate and precise measure of what we want to measure.

Classification of Scale
Single item scale: There is one item to measure a given construct.
Multiple item scale: There are many items to measure the construct.
Comparative Scale Vs Non-Comparative Scale
Comparative Scales: It is assumed that respondents make use of a standard frame of reference before answering
the questions.

Paired Comparison Scale: A respondent is presented with two objects and is asked to select one according to
whatever criterion he/she wants to use. The resulting data from this scale is ordinal in nature.Ex:
Suppose a parent wants to offer one of the four items to a child- chocolate,burger,ice cream and pizza. The child is
offered to choose one out of from the 6 possible pairs- In general if there are n items the number of paired
comparison would be n(n-1)/2.

Rank Order Scaling

Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some
criterion.
Ex:
Soft Drinks Rank
Coke 1
Pepsi 3
Limca 4
Sprite 5
Mirinda 2
Seven up 6
Fanta 7

Constant sum rating scale

The respondents are asked to allocate a total of 100 points between various objects and brands
Allocate a total of 100 points among the various B-School into which you would suggest to take admission
B-School Point
IBCS 40
KISM 20
XIM 10
IMI 10
IMIS 20

Q-Sort technique
This technique makes use of the rank order procedure in which objects are sorted into different piles based on their
similarity with respect to certain criterion. Suppose there are 100 statements and an individual is asked to pile them
into 5 groups, in such a way that the strongly agreed statements could be put into one pile, agreed statements in
another pile, etc.
Non Comparative Scale
The respondents do not use of any frame of reference before answering any questions. The resulting data is
assumed to be interval or ratio scale.
The non comparative scale are divide into two categories- graphic rating scale, itemised rating scale. The itemized
are further divided into likert scale, semantic differential scale, stapel scale.
Graphic rating scale
It is a continuous scale. In this scale , the respondent is asked to tick his preference on a graph.
Itemised rating Scale:
The respondents are provided with a scale that has a number of brief description associated with each of the
response categories.
The issues to be kept in mind while designing the itemised rating scale:
1. Odd of Even number of categories.
2.Balanced vs UnBalanced Scale- Balance is one which has equal number of favorable and unfavorable categories.

Example of balanced Scale:

Q1. How important is price to you in buying a new car?
A)Very Important
B)Relatively Important
C)Neither important nor un important.
D.)Relatively Unimportant.
E).Very Unimportant

Example of Unbalanced Scale:

More Important
Extremely important
Important
Some what important
Unimportant
3. Nature and degree of verbal descriptions: it should be simple and clearly precisely word.
4.Forced vs Non-Forced Scale:
In forced scale the respondent is forced to take a stand on it, whereas in non-forced scale , the respondent can be
neutral if he/she so desires.
Paired comparison, rank order scale and constant sum rating scale are forced scales.

Likert Scale: it is multiple item agree-disagree five point scale. The respondents are asked to express degree of
agreement / disagreement. It is also called summated scale because the scores on individual items can be added
together to produce a total score for the respondent.
Strongly Disagree =1 to Strongly Agree 5

Semantic Differential Scale:It is used to compare the images of competing brands, companies or services. The
respondent is required to rate each attitude or object on a number of five or seven point rating scale.In this scale
biploar adjectives or phrases is added.

Stapel Scale: it is used to measure the direction and intensity of an attitude.

Steps in Questionnaire Design procedure

1. Convert the Research Objectives into the information needed: specify the information needed for the study ,
in this case one will look at the information needed from the primary data source.
2. Method of administering the questionnaire: The researcher should specify how the information should be
collected. The main methods are personal schedule self administered questionnaire through mail, fax, web based.
3. Content of the questionnaire: In this steps, it is decided what matter to be included as questions in the
measure. The decision to include or not include certain questions depends upon a certain criteria. The researcher
might formulate a number of questions which he thinks address the information needs of the study.
4. Motivating the respondents to answer :The questionnaire should be designed as to simulate the respondent to
give comprehensive information regarding a particular topic under study.
5. Determining the type of questions:
Open ended questions : are unstructured .Thus the words ,logic and structure are provided by a respondent and not
the researcher.
Ex: What is your age ?
I like Nescafe because:----------
My career goal is to --------
Which is your favorite serial channel?
Close Ended questions: Both the question and response format are structured and defined.
It may be of the following types:
A) Dichotomous questions: has restrictive alternatives and provide the respondent with two options.
Are you diabetic ? Yes /No
What kind of Cola do you drink ? Diet/Normal.
Have you read the new book by John ? Yes/No
B) Multiple Choice questions: The person gives a number of alternatives.
Ex: Will you consider selling organic food products in your store?
i) Definitely not in next year
ii) Probably next year
iii) Undecided
C) Scale
6.Criteria for question designing: Step six of the questionnaire involves translating the questions identified into
meaningful questions.
i) Clearly specify the issue
ii) Use simple terminology
Iii) Avoid ambiguity in questioning
Iv) avoid leading questions: leading questions provide a clue for the good answer.
v) avoid loaded questions: loaded questions explore answers to sensitive issues.
Ex: Will you take dowry when you get married(in corect)
Do you think most Indian men would take dowry when they get married ? (Correct)
Vi) Avoid double barrelled questions: questions that have two separate options separated by an or and
Do you think Nokia and Samsung have a wide variety of touch phones? (incorrect)
A wide variety of touch phones is available for
A)Nokia
B)Samsung
C)Both
7. Questionnaire structure: The question has to be put in a sequence. Instructions will explain the purpose of
questionnaire administration and introduce the respondent to the research’s objective. Simple questions which do
not require a lot of thinking or response time should be asked first as they build the tempo for answering the more
difficult /sensitive questions faster. Sequential order has to be maintained. Acknowledgement will be given at the
end.
8.Physical characteristics of the questionnaire: The quality of the paper on which the questionnaire is printed
should be good quality. Font style, spacing and color should be uniform.
9. Pilot testing of the questionnaire: It involves the testing and administration of the designed instrument on a
small group of people from the population under study.
10. Administering the questionnaire: The final instrument is ready for conduction and the questionnaire needs to
be administered according to the sampling plan.
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Sampling Method and Its Types

Taking a subset from chosen sampling frame or entire population is called sampling. Sampling can be used to make inference
about a population or to make generalization in relation to existing theory. In essence, this depends on choice of sampling
technique.
In general, sampling techniques can be divided into two types:
Probability or random sampling
Non- probability or non- random sampling
 SAMPLING DESIGN AND ITS TYPES
Population: It refers to any group of people or objects that form the subject of study in a particular survey.
Element: an element comprises a single member of the population.
Sampling frame: it comprises all the elements of a population with proper identification that is available to us
for selection at any stage of sampling. Ex:Registered students of University
Sample : It is a subset of the population.
Sampling Unit : A single member of the sample.
Sampling : It is the process of selecting an adequate number of elements from the population so that the study
of the sample will not help in understanding the characteristics of the population but will also enable us to
generalize the results.
Census: an examination of each and every element of the population is called census.
Sampling error: This error arises when a sample is not representative of the population .Non sampling Error:
This error arises not because a sample is not a representative of the population but because of other reasons .
Need for Sampling
Sampling is used in practice for a variety of reasons such as:-
Reduces the time and cost,saves labor,Quality of a study is often better with sampling than
with a complete,Coverage,Provides much better results,Only procedure possible, if the population is infinite.
There are many types of sampling, most sampling types can be categorized as:
a) Probability sampling and
b) Non-probability sampling
 Probability sampling:-
is one in which every unit in the population has a chance of being selected in the sample, and this probability
can be accurately determined. The combinations of these traits make it possible to produce unbiased estimates
of population totals, by weighing sampled units according to their probability of selection.
Probability Sampling is of the following types:

1.Simple Random sampling

2.Stratified Random sampling
3.Systematic Random sampling
4. Cluster/ Area sampling
5.Multi stage sampling
6.Random sampling with probability proportional to size (PPS)
7.Double sampling and Multiphase sampling
8.Replicated or interpenetrating sampling.
Non-Probability sampling:
Non probability sampling plans are those that provide no basis for estimating how closely the sample
characteristics approximate the parameters of the population from which the sample was obtained. In fact the
investigator is generally unable to identify the parent population.
Non-Probability sampling may be classified into:-
1.Convenience or Accidental sampling
2.Purposive or judgment sampling
3.Quota sampling
4.Snow – ball sampling
Simple Random sampling: -
A simple random sample is one in which each element of the population has an equal and independent chance
of being included in the sample i.e.
a sample selected by randomization method is known as simple random sample and this technique is simple
random-sampling. Randomization is a method and is done by using a number of techniques as:-
a)Tossing a coin
b)Throwing a disc
c)Lottery method
d)Blind folded method
Systematic Sampling:
Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population according to some ordering scheme and then
selecting elements at regular start and then proceeds with the selection of every Kth element from the onwards.
In this case K= (population size). It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in the list,
but is instead randomly chosen from within the first to the Kth element in the list.

Example
A simple eg:- would be to select every 10th name from the telephone directory (an every 10th sample, also
referred to as sampling with a skip of 10).
Stratified Sampling

It is an improvement over the earlier method, when employing this techniques, the researcher divides his
population in strata on the basis of some characteristics and from each of these smaller homogenous groups
(strata) drawn at random a pre-determined number of Units. Researcher should choose that characteristic or
criterion which seems to be more relevant in his research work.

Dispropationate Stratified Sampling

Means that the size of the sample in each Unit is not proportionate to the size of the unit but depends upon
considerations involving personal judgment and convenience.
Proportionate sampling: -
Refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is proportionate to the size of the unit.
Optimum allocation stratified sampling:-
Is representative as well as comprehensive than other stratified samples. It refers to selecting units from each
stratum should be in proportion to the corresponding stratum the population. Thus sample obtained is known
as optimum allocation stratified sample.
Cluster sampling:
To select the intact group as a whole is known as a cluster sampling. In cluster sampling the sample units
contain groups of elements (clusters) instead of individual members or items in the population.eg:- Rather than
listing all elementary school children in a given city and random selecting 15 per cent these students for the
sample, a researcher lists all of the elementary schools in the city, selects at random 15 percent of these clusters
of units, and uses all of the children in the selected schools as the sample.
Multi-stage sampling: -
In this method, sampling is carried out in two or more stages. The population is regarded as being composed
of a number of first stage sampling units. Each of them is made up of number of second stage units and so
forth. That is, at each stage, a sampling unit is a cluster of the sampling units of the subsequent stage, first, a
sample of the first stage sampling is drawn, and then from each of the selected first stage sampling unit, a
sample of the second stage sampling units is drawn. The procedure continues down to the final Sampling units
or population elements. Appropriate random sampling method is adopted at each stage.
USAGE
Multi-stage sampling is appropriate where the population is scattered over a wider geographical area an no
frame or list is available for sampling. It is also useful when a survey has to be made within a limited time and
cost budget.
Sampling with probability proportionate size (PPS)
Sampling with probability proportionate size (PPS):
This procedure of selecting clusters with probability proportional to size (PPS) is widely used, if one primary
cluster has twice, as large a population as another, It is given twice the chance of being selected. If the same
number of persons is then selected from each of the selected clusters, the overall probability of any person will
be the same. Thus PPS is a better method for securing a representative sample of population elements in multi-
stage cluster sampling.

Double (or two phases) sampling :

Refers to the sub-section of the final sample from a pre-selected larger sample, that provides
information for providing the final selection. When this procedure is extended to more than two phases
of selection it is then called Multi-Phase sampling. This is also known as sequential sampling as sub
sampling is done from a main sample in phases. Additional information from sub samples of the full
sample may be collected at the same time or later.
Example:
In order to study the views of post graduate students of a University on semester system a random sample of
300 students (out of a total populations of 3000 students distributed over different disciplines like ,
Economics, Sociology, Statistics etc.) Is to be drawn adopting discipline based stratified sampling.
Instead of selecting one full sample of 300 students, two sub sample of 150 each or five sub-samples of 60
each may be selected. Whatever may be the number and size of sub-sample, each sub-sample has to be an
independent sample with the same sampling method and must be a sample covering the complete population.
Each sub sample may be allocated one individual investigator or a team of investigators.
Non- probability sampling methods :
1.Convenience or accidental sampling: It means selecting sample units in a ‘1 hit and miss fashion’. Example:
interviewing people whom we happen to meet. This sampling also means selecting whatever sampling units
are conveniently available.
Example A teacher may select students in his class.
This method is also known as accidental sampling because the respondents whom the researcher meets
accidentally are included in the sample.
Purposive or Judgment Sampling:
This method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to some pre-determined criteria. This is
also known as judgment sampling. This involves selection of cases which we judge as the most appropriate
ones for the given study. It is based on the judgment of the researcher or some expert. It does not aim at
searching a cross section of a population.
Quota Sampling:
This is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of accessible sampling units by
traits such as Sex, Social class etc. In specific proportions, each investigator may be given an assignment of
quota groups specified by the pre-determined traits in specific proportions. He can then select accessible
persons belonging to those groups in the area assigned to him.
Quota sampling is therefore, a method of stratified sampling in which the selection within strata is non-
random. Quota sampling is used in studies like marketing survey, opinion polls, and readership survey which
do not aim at precision but to get quickly some crude results.

Data Preparation Process

1. Data Editing
In data editing researcher needs to ensure that : the data obtained is complete in all respects. It is accurate in
terms of information recorded and responses sought.
Field editing : Usually the preliminary editing of the information obtained is done by the field investigators or
supervisors. It is advisable that at the end of every field day of the investigators review the filled forms for any
inconsistencies , non responses , illegible responses or incomplete questionnaires.
Centralized in house editing: It takes place at the researchers end. It is done by the researcher alone or by
various members in the research team.
Backtracking : It involves returning to the field and to the respondents , so as to follow up the unsatisfactory
responses.
Allocate Missing values:
Discarding unsatisfactory responses
2. Data Coding : The process of identifying and denoting a numeral responses given by a respondent is called
coding.
3.Data Classification.
Reducing the information into homogenous categories on the basis of structured questions is called
classification of data.
4.Data tabulation.
It involves an orderly arrangement of data into an array that is suitable for statistical analysis.
5.Exploratory data Analysis
Once the data has been cleaned and entered in a tabular form , the researcher is advised to do a preliminary
data exploration , in order to asses the expected trends of the finding .

Software : Excel, Mimitab,SAS(System for Statistical Analysis),SPSS

Cross Tabulation
Bivariate data analysis examines the relationship between two variables . There are three types of measures
used for carrying out bivariate analysis . Theses are
A) Cross tabulation
B)Correlation etc.
Cross tabulation : In simple tabulation , the frequency and the percentage for each question was calculated. In
cross tabulation , responses to two questions are combined and data is tabulated together.A cross tabulation
counts the number of observations in each cross category of two variables.