ECE 5984: Power Distribution System Analysis

Lecture 8: Voltage Regulation

Reference: Textbook, Chapter 7
Instructor: V. Kekatos

1
Outline

•  Need for voltage regulation in distribution systems

•  Voltage control mechanisms and standards

•  Single-phase autotransformers and ABCD models

•  Controlling single-phase voltage regulators

•  Three-phase voltage regulators and models

2
Voltage regulation

•  In distribution systems, voltage control is more challenging

n ⇣ s ⌘⇤ o
V ' Re {zI} = Re z
V
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' Re {zs⇤ } = rp + xq

•  Voltage drops due to both active and reactive loads (significant line resistances)

Effects of over-voltage
reduced light bulb life and electronic devices

Effects of under-voltage
lower illumination
constant-z heating devices (e.g., water heaters) operate slower
higher starting currents on motors and overheating

3
Standard voltage ratings

•  American National Standards Institute (ANSI) C84.1-1995 on 5-min RMS voltages

ü  Range A (normal steady-state): 114V – 126V (RMS)

ü  Range B (emergency steady-state): 107V – 127V (RMS)
ü  less than 3% unbalance at the utility meter

Kevin Schneider (PNNL)

•  Service/delivery vs. utilitization voltage (~4V drop within customer’s wiring)

4
Voltage regulation mechanisms

LTC transformer
(substation regulator)

5
Voltage regulation mechanisms

step-voltage regulator

6
Voltage regulation mechanisms

shunt capacitors

7
Single-phase transformer
Z1 N1 :N2 Z2
H1 X1
•  Detailed model + Iex + + +
IS
I1 I2
N2
turns ratio nt := VS Ym E1 E2 VL
N1

– – – –
H2 X2

N1 :N2 Zt
H1 X1
+ Iex + + +
IS I1 I2

•  Approximate model VS Ym E1 E2 VL
source load
– – – –
H2 X2

•  High-voltage side impedance referred to low-voltage side

Zt := n2t Z1 + Z2

8
Network for single-phase transformer
N1 :N2 Zt
H1 X1
+ Iex + + +
IS I1 I2
VS Ym E1 E2 VL

– – – –
H2 X2

1 Zt
   a= ; b=
VS a b VL nt nt
=
IS c d IL Ym Ym Zt
c= ; d= + nt
nt nt
•  Ideal transformer Ym = Zt = 0

•  Receiving voltage in terms of its current and sending voltage (E/F model)

V L = nt V S Zt IL

•  Lecture 9 covers network models for all transformer connections

9
Autotransformer
•  A single-winding tapped, or a two-winding transformer reconnected

N1 :N2 Zt
H1 X1
+ Iex + + +
IS I1 I2
VS Ym E1 E2 VL

– – – –
H2 X2

N2 Zt
X1
+
+
I2
E2
series winding
•  Windings magnetically and
–
electrically coupled
X2 VL
N1
H1
+ IS Iex +
I1
VS Ym E1
common or
shunt winding
– – –
H2

10
Step-up autotransformer
N2 Zt
X1
+
+
I2
E2

–
X2 VL
N1
H1
+ IS Iex +
I1
VS Ym E1

– – –
H2

1 Zt
   a= ; b=
VS a b VL 1 + nt 1 + nt
= Ym Ym Zt
IS c d IL c= ; d= + 1 + nt
1 + nt 1 + nt

•  Why step-up?

•  Compare with two-winding transformer

11
Step-down autotransformer
N2 Zt
X2
+
–
I2
E2

+
X1 VL
N1
H1
+ IS Iex +
I1
VS Ym E1

– – –
H2

1 Zt
   a= ; b=
VS a b VL 1 nt 1 nt
=
IS c d IL Ym Ym Zt
c= ; d= +1 nt
1 nt 1 nt

•  Receiving voltage in terms of its current and sending voltage

VL = (1 ± nt )VS Zt IL

12
Approximate model of ideal transformer
N2 Zt
X1
+
+
I2
E2

–
X2 VL
N1
H1
+ IS Iex +
I1
VS Ym E1

– – –
H2

•  Distribution auto-transformers can be approximated as ideal with little error

   1
VS a b VL a= ; b'0 + for raise
= 1 ± nt
IS c d IL c ' 0; d ' 1 ± nt for lower

13
Rating advantage

1 ± nt
•  Voltage ratings VS = E1 and VL = E2
nt

•  Power ratings for autotransformer and two-winding transformer

SA = V S I S = V L I L SA VS I S 1 ± nt
= =
SW = E1 I 1 = E 2 I 2 SW E1 I 1 nt

•  Significant power rating advantage for small turns ratios

If VL = (1 + nt )VS = 1.1 · VS
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) nt = 0.1 ) SA = 11 · SW

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If VL = (1 + nt )VS = 10 · VS ) nt = 9 ) SA = 1.11 · SW

14
Per-unit impedances

•  Base impedances significantly larger than those of two-winding transformers

✓ ◆
VL2 (E1 ± E2 )2 1 ± nt
load side ZA,base = = = ZW,base
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SA SA nt
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
SA 1 ± nt SW 1 ± nt
source side YA,base = 2 = = YW,base
VS nt E12 nt

•  Per-unit impedances are significantly smaller than those of two-winding transformer

15
SVR of Type A

Type A: load connected to series winding

+ +
N2 N2
L L
IL IL
E2 E2 I2
L L
R I2 + RL + +
IL –
–

S N1 S IS N1
+ + + +
IS S IS VL
VL I1 VL
+

VS E1 VS E1
VS
I1
– – – – – – – –
SL
SL SL
raise position lower position
•  Reversing switch changes directions of currents
•  ±10% range in 32 steps of 20/32=0.625% or 0.75V for a nominal 120V
16
SVR of Type B

Type B: source connected to series winding (more popular)

IS IS
N2 N2
I2 + +

S R S R
E2 E2
S
+ L + L
IS + IS I2
– –
IS
IL IL
N1 L IL N1 L
+ VS +
VS + +
VS L I1
+
E1 E1
VL VL VL

I1
–
–
– –
– – – –
SL
SL SL
raise position lower position

17
Regulator model
IS IS
N2
I2 + N2
•  Neglect series impedances and shunt admittances
+
S R
E2 S R
  L  E2 S S
+ +a + +
IS VS b
IS
VL I L
=– 2
IS c d IL – IS IS
IL IL
N1 L LIL IL
N1 + +
VS + VS L
+ VS L VS
•  Type B (shown here) I1 + +
E1 E1
VL VL VL VL
1 N2
a = aR ; b = c = 0; d=
I1 a
; aR = 1 ⌥
R N1
–
– – – – –
– aR = 1 ⌥ 0.00625– · Tap – –
SL SL
SL SL
raise lower

•  Type A (derived earlier)

1 N2
a= ; b = c = 0; d = aR ; aR = 1 ±
aR N1

18
Control settings

•  Voltage level (e.g., 120 V)

•  Bandwidth: allowed deviation around set voltage level (e.g., ±1V)

•  Time delay before taking action (to avoid fluctuation due to e.g., motor starting)

19
Tuning bandwidth and delay
•  Avoid excessive regulator operation and oscillations (reduces lifetime)

Improper settings

Kevin Schneider (PNNL) Better settings

•  Tuning is harder (impossible) with fluctuations in solar irradiance and PVs

•  Smart inverters can take over fluctuations at faster timescale
20
Control of voltage regulators

•  Not all feeders have SVRs: no need for short and/or lightly-loaded feeders

1.  Control based on local voltage output

Kevin Schneider (PNNL)

21
Control of voltage regulators

2.  Control based on remote voltage

Kevin Schneider (PNNL)

22
Control of voltage regulators

3.  Control based on voltage predicted at a pseudopoint

Kevin Schneider (PNNL)

•  Line drop compensator models (estimates) the voltage drop at a remote point

23
Line drop compensator (LDC)
Vreg Vload
•  Equivalent impedance found through PF simulations Zline =
Iline

usually few
amperes

usually 120V

ZLDC,base CTP
•  LDC impedance ZLDC = Zline = Zline ⌦
Zline,base NP T CTS
CTP
•  LDC impedance oftentimes expressed in Volts ZLDC,V = ZLDC CTS = Zline V
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NP T
24
Examples 7.4-7.6
Substation transformer:
5 MVA and 115-4.16 kV
Zline = 0.3 + j0.9 ⌦

LDC ratings: 120V and 5A

1.  Find PT/CT ratings

2.  Find LCD setting in ohms and volts
3.  2.5 MVA load is to be served at 4.16 kV with 0.9 PF lagging. Voltage level to be
held within 2V around 120V. Determine tap position.
4.  Find the actual voltage at the load.

25
Examples 7.4-7.6 (solution)

•  LDC potential transformer

2, 400V
VLL,base = 4.16kV ) VLN,base = 2, 401.8kV ' 2.4kV NPT = = 20
120V
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•  LDC current transformer

5MVA CTP 700A
Ibase = p = 693.9A ' 700A CT = = = 140
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3 · VLL,base <latexit sha1_base64="75Lfj49hz3JZxIV+SBXuZPBCalE=">AAACNHicbZDLSsNAFIYn9VbrLerSTbAIrkoiSt0UKt0Ibir2Bk0pk+mkHTq5MHMilpCHcuODuBHBhSJufQanbSy19cDAd/5/DjPnd0LOJJjmq5ZZWV1b38hu5ra2d3b39P2DhgwiQWidBDwQLQdLyplP68CA01YoKPYcTpvOsDL2m/dUSBb4NRiFtOPhvs9cRjAoqavf2EAfIK7UkpLtCkziWd+tJnPN3a9fNM2pepUk8cUMS9a52dXzZsGclLEMVgp5lFa1qz/bvYBEHvWBcCxl2zJD6MRYACOcJjk7kjTEZIj7tK3Qxx6VnXiydGKcKKVnuIFQxwdjos5PxNiTcuQ56qaHYSAXvbH4n9eOwL3sxMwPI6A+mT7kRtyAwBgnaPSYoAT4SAEmgqm/GmSAVTagcs6pEKzFlZehcVawFN+e58tWGkcWHaFjdIosVERldI2qqI4IekQv6B19aE/am/apfU2vZrR05hD9Ke37B8LlrJU=</latexit>
CTS 5A

CTP
•  LDC impedance ZLDC = Zline ⌦ = 2.1 + j6.3⌦ [10.5 + j31.5V (data entry)]
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NP T CTS

2.5MVA
•  Line current Iline = p = 346.97\ 25.84o ) ILDC = 2.478\ 25.84o A
3 · VLL <latexit sha1_base64="XLl3u6TVzfpbibweXgtctdWUjVI=">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</latexit>

•  Taps and ratios for VR (type-B)

⌧ = [ 15 : 1 : +15] ) aR (⌧ ) = 1
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0.00625 · ⌧

26
Examples 7.4-7.6 (solution cont’d)

•  If constant-current load, Iline remains constant

Is !
Zline
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Vs Vr Iline ! <latexit sha1_base64="0J6vvt/mmswdI7YqNYgTto17IG0=">AAAB6nicdZDLSgMxFIbP1Futt6pLN8EiuCpJEdvuCm5cVrQXaIeSSdM2NJMZkoxQhj6CGxeKuPWJ3Pk2ZtoKKvpD4OP/zyHnnCCWwliMP7zc2vrG5lZ+u7Czu7d/UDw8apso0Yy3WCQj3Q2o4VIo3rLCSt6NNadhIHknmF5leeeeayMidWdnMfdDOlZiJBi1zrptD8ygWMJljDEhBGVAqpfYQb1eq5AaIlnkVIKVmoPie38YsSTkyjJJjekRHFs/pdoKJvm80E8Mjymb0jHvOVQ05MZPF6PO0ZlzhmgUafeURQv3e0dKQ2NmYeAqQ2on5neWmX9lvcSOan4qVJxYrtjyo1EikY1QtjcaCs2ZlTMHlGnhZkVsQjVl1l2n4I7wtSn6H9qVMnF8c1FqkNU58nACp3AOBKrQgGtoQgsYjOEBnuDZk96j9+K9Lktz3qrnGH7Ie/sEg8eN5Q==</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="Z1XUPFNv4s5EF0DsxKIryYqfvd8=">AAAB6nicdZDLSgMxFIbP1Futt6pLN8EiuCpJEdvuCm5cVrQXaIeSSdM2NJMZkoxQhj6CGxeKuPWJ3Pk2ZtoKKvpD4OP/zyHnnCCWwliMP7zc2vrG5lZ+u7Czu7d/UDw8apso0Yy3WCQj3Q2o4VIo3rLCSt6NNadhIHknmF5leeeeayMidWdnMfdDOlZiJBi1zrptD/SgWMJljDEhBGVAqpfYQb1eq5AaIlnkVIKVmoPie38YsSTkyjJJjekRHFs/pdoKJvm80E8Mjymb0jHvOVQ05MZPF6PO0ZlzhmgUafeURQv3e0dKQ2NmYeAqQ2on5neWmX9lvcSOan4qVJxYrtjyo1EikY1QtjcaCs2ZlTMHlGnhZkVsQjVl1l2n4I7wtSn6H9qVMnF8c1FqkNU58nACp3AOBKrQgGtoQgsYjOEBnuDZk96j9+K9Lktz3qrnGH7Ie/sEgkON5A==</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="yIio3MEKc81VARZAMWgjvSwZVAM=">AAACBXicdZDLSgMxFIYzXmu9VV3qIlgEVzIRsXUnuNFdBXuBdhgyadoGM8mQnFHL0I0bX8WNC0Xc+g7ufBsztYKKHgh8/P85Sc4fJVJY8P13b2p6ZnZuvrBQXFxaXlktra03rE4N43WmpTatiFouheJ1ECB5KzGcxpHkzejyJPebV9xYodUFDBMexLSvRE8wCk4KS1tnYQf4DWT5BaOO1KpvRH8A1Bh9HZbK/p7v+4QQnAOpHPoOjo6q+6SKSW65KqNJ1cLSW6erWRpzBUxSa9vETyDIqAHBJB8VO6nlCWWXtM/bDhWNuQ2y8RYjvOOULu5p444CPFa/T2Q0tnYYR64zpjCwv71c/Mtrp9CrBplQSQpcsc+HeqnEoHEeCe4KwxnIoQPKjHB/xWxADWXggiu6EL42xf9DY3+POD4/KB+TSRwFtIm20S4iqIKO0SmqoTpi6Bbdo0f05N15D96z9/LZOuVNZjbQj/JePwBBGpmm</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="8nbt26EiWdCrC4Ydgkjq9C3UP+8=">AAAB9HicdVDLSgMxFM34rPVVdekmWARXJSli213BjcsK9oHtUDJppg3NPEzuFMvQ73DjQhG3fow7/8ZMW0FFDwQO59zDvTlerKQBQj6cldW19Y3N3FZ+e2d3b79wcNgyUaK5aPJIRbrjMSOUDEUTJCjRibVggadE2xtfZn57IrSRUXgD01i4ARuG0pecgZXc234PxD2kWXzWLxRJiRBCKcUZoZULYkmtVi3TKqaZZVFESzT6hffeIOJJIELgihnTpSQGN2UaJFdilu8lRsSMj9lQdC0NWSCMm86PnuFTqwywH2n7QsBz9XsiZYEx08CzkwGDkfntZeJfXjcBv+qmMowTECFfLPIThSHCWQN4ILXgoKaWMK6lvRXzEdOMg+0pb0v4+in+n7TKJWr59XmxTpd15NAxOkFniKIKqqMr1EBNxNEdekBP6NmZOI/Oi/O6GF1xlpkj9APO2yegmpKb</latexit>

ZLDC Zline
<latexit sha1_base64="8nbt26EiWdCrC4Ydgkjq9C3UP+8=">AAAB9HicdVDLSgMxFM34rPVVdekmWARXJSli213BjcsK9oHtUDJppg3NPEzuFMvQ73DjQhG3fow7/8ZMW0FFDwQO59zDvTlerKQBQj6cldW19Y3N3FZ+e2d3b79wcNgyUaK5aPJIRbrjMSOUDEUTJCjRibVggadE2xtfZn57IrSRUXgD01i4ARuG0pecgZXc234PxD2kWXzWLxRJiRBCKcUZoZULYkmtVi3TKqaZZVFESzT6hffeIOJJIELgihnTpSQGN2UaJFdilu8lRsSMj9lQdC0NWSCMm86PnuFTqwywH2n7QsBz9XsiZYEx08CzkwGDkfntZeJfXjcBv+qmMowTECFfLPIThSHCWQN4ILXgoKaWMK6lvRXzEdOMg+0pb0v4+in+n7TKJWr59XmxTpd15NAxOkFniKIKqqMr1EBNxNEdekBP6NmZOI/Oi/O6GF1xlpkj9APO2yegmpKb</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="d8cMYzntIm5gJTurbbq/7eaZDwA=">AAAB83icdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbrrerSTbAIrsqkiG13hbpw4aKCvWBnKJk004ZmLiRnxDL0Ndy4UMStL+POtzHTVlDRA4GP/z+Hc/J7sRQabPvDyq2srq1v5DcLW9s7u3vF/YOOjhLFeJtFMlI9j2ouRcjbIEDyXqw4DTzJu96kmfndO660iMIbmMbcDegoFL5gFIzk3A4c4PeQXl00Z4NiyS7btk0IwRmQ6rltoF6vVUgNk8wyVULLag2K784wYknAQ2CSat0ndgxuShUIJvms4CSax5RN6Ij3DYY04NpN5zfP8IlRhtiPlHkh4Ln6fSKlgdbTwDOdAYWx/u1l4l9ePwG/5qYijBPgIVss8hOJIcJZAHgoFGcgpwYoU8LcitmYKsrAxFQwIXz9FP8PnUqZGL4+KzXIMo48OkLH6BQRVEUNdIlaqI0YitEDekLPVmI9Wi/W66I1Zy1nDtGPst4+ATLrkbw=</latexit>

ZLDC ILDC
<latexit sha1_base64="cRXiw/XB1uH28j+GxTpZtavTkPA=">AAACAXicdZDLSgMxFIYzXmu9jboR3ASL4KpMith2V6gLBRcV7AXbUjJp2oZmLiRnxDLUja/ixoUibn0Ld76NmbZCFT0Q+Pj/czg5vxtKocFxPq2FxaXlldXUWnp9Y3Nr297ZrekgUoxXWSAD1XCp5lL4vAoCJG+EilPPlbzuDsuJX7/lSovAv4ZRyNse7fuiJxgFI3Xs/ZtOC/gdxJdn5fHFHHfsjJN1HIcQghMg+VPHQLFYyJECJollKoNmVenYH61uwCKP+8Ak1bpJnBDaMVUgmOTjdCvSPKRsSPu8adCnHtfteHLBGB8ZpYt7gTLPBzxR5ydi6mk98lzT6VEY6N9eIv7lNSPoFdqx8MMIuM+mi3qRxBDgJA7cFYozkCMDlClh/orZgCrKwISWNiF8X4r/h1ouSwxfnWRKZBZHCh2gQ3SMCMqjEjpHFVRFDN2jR/SMXqwH68l6td6mrQvWbGYP/Sjr/QuprZb5</latexit>

VLDC
<latexit sha1_base64="AocX0frX2iUIAaEuUqbNTMSq1Po=">AAAB83icdZDLSgMxFIYzXmu9VV26CRbBVUmK2HZXqAsXLirYC3SGkknTNjRzITkjlqGv4caFIm59GXe+jZm2gooeCHz8/zmck9+PlTRAyIezsrq2vrGZ28pv7+zu7RcODtsmSjQXLR6pSHd9ZoSSoWiBBCW6sRYs8JXo+JNG5nfuhDYyCm9hGgsvYKNQDiVnYCW33XdB3EN6fdmY9QtFUiKEUEpxBrRyQSzUatUyrWKaWbaKaFnNfuHdHUQ8CUQIXDFjepTE4KVMg+RKzPJuYkTM+ISNRM9iyAJhvHR+8wyfWmWAh5G2LwQ8V79PpCwwZhr4tjNgMDa/vUz8y+slMKx6qQzjBETIF4uGicIQ4SwAPJBacFBTC4xraW/FfMw042BjytsQvn6K/4d2uUQt35wX63QZRw4doxN0hiiqoDq6Qk3UQhzF6AE9oWcncR6dF+d10briLGeO0I9y3j4BLK+RuA==</latexit>

•  Voltage at relay should remain within [119:121]V

Vrelay = VLDC
<latexit sha1_base64="LljshA7J8db3A/eQHNWejAXtQak=">AAACHnicbZDJSgNBEIZ74hbjFvXoZTAoXgwzouhFCMSDgocIZsFkGHo6laRJz0J3jRiGPIkXX8WLB0UET/o2dhYhJhY0fPVXFdX1e5HgCi3r20jNzS8sLqWXMyura+sb2c2tigpjyaDMQhHKmkcVCB5AGTkKqEUSqO8JqHrd4qBevQepeBjcYi8Cx6ftgLc4o6glN3tScRsID5hIELTX3z//za8viv3Du4nkaoLdbM7KW8MwZ8EeQ46Mo+RmPxvNkMU+BMgEVapuWxE6CZXImYB+phEriCjr0jbUNQbUB+Ukw/P65p5WmmYrlPoFaA7VyYmE+kr1fE93+hQ7aro2EP+r1WNsnTkJD6IYIWCjRa1YmBiaA6/MJpfAUPQ0UCa5/qvJOlRShtrRjDbBnj55FipHeVvzzXGuYI/tSJMdsksOiE1OSYFckhIpE0YeyTN5JW/Gk/FivBsfo9aUMZ7ZJn/C+PoBGhijAQ==</latexit>
ZLDC ILDC

Vr
= ZLDC ILDC
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NPT
Vs
= ZLDC ILDC
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aR · NPT
27
Examples 7.4-7.6 (solution cont’d)

•  Voltage magnitude at relay for different tap settings

Vs
Vrelay = ZLDC ILDC
<latexit sha1_base64="sgJZQ9RKhMDMKCZnHFahxx28m/I=">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</latexit>
aR · NPT

•  Working assumptions
–  constant-current load
–  VR started from neutral position neutral position

•  Textbook assumes constant power (current) at

substation, and finds tap=+12

final position

28
Finding taps using a PF solver

29
Wye SVR
B IB

Ia
a
IA
A

+
VAn + Ib
Van b
–
–

Ic
c

C IC
0.9  aR  1.1

•  Each regulator may have its own tap changer and/or LDC
•  Advantage over a single three-phase SVRs which are ‘gang’-operated
•  Problem if LDCs share the same line impedance
2 a 3
aR 0 0
•  Generalized v = Av + Bi`
A = 4 0 abR 0 5; B = C = 0; D=A 1
matrices iL = Cv + Di` 0 0 acR

•  Model holds for raise/lower position; extends trivially to open Wye connection
30
Delta-connected regulators

•  Used in three-wire delta feeders

+ A
–

SL S

– +
VAa L a
Vca –
L
+
VAB + not line current
–
VCc Vab
+ + – line-to-line voltage
C S SL
–
– Vbc + – VBb +
SL S

L
+ b
– B
c

31
Closed delta SVR (cont’d)
A

IA

SL S

Ica Ia΄ Ia
IA a
L
L
Ic΄

Iab
IC
C
S SL
Ibc IB
IC
SL S

Ib΄
L Ib
B IB b
Ic
c

•  Generalized matrices v ,LL = Av ,LL + Bi`

iL = Cv ,LL + Di`
2 3 2 3 1
aab
R 1 abc
R 0 aab
R 0 1 aca
R
A= 4 0 abc
R 1 aR ca 5 4
; B = C = 0; D = 1 aabR abc
R 0 5
1 aabR 0 ca
aR 0 1 abcR aca
R

•  Harder to control due to coupling in voltages and currents

32
Open delta SVR
A vCA = (vAB + vBC )
+ – IA
iB = (iA + iC )
S line current
+ Ia
VAa L a
VCA
– + –
+
VAB
Vab Vab
Iab
Icb
– line-to-line voltage
–
+ + VCc – SL
Ib
C S SL b Vca
– V + +
– IC bc

Vbc
VBC L

Ic –
– c +
+ IB
B

•  Generalized matrices v ,LL = Av ,LL + Bi`

iL = Cv ,LL + Di`
2 3 2 3
aab
R 0 0 1/aab
R 0 0
A=4 0 acb
R 0 5 ; B = C = 0; D = 4 1/aab
R 0 1/acb
R
5
aab
R acb
R 0 0 0 1/acb
R

33
Summary

•  Voltage regulation is challenging in distribution systems

•  Fixed, local, remote, or LDC-based control of SVRs

•  ABCD models for single- and three-phase SVRs

•  Line drop compensators

34