Topic 1 Pressure Measurement

Week 6 • Learning Outcomes:

Lecture: – State pressure and units for pressure,
Topic 1: Pressure gauge, absolute and differential pressures
T i 2:
Topic 2 Fl
Flow – Describe pressure measuring methods:
Class Test 1 (1 hour) on Tuesday bellows type, Bourdon-tube, mercury
barometer, manometers and rotameters
Tutorial 5: Transducers and
– Describe pressure detection circuitry
temperature measurement • Reading: Chapter 7

Pressure measurement Pressure and units

• Pressure is force per unit area (fluid, gas)
• Pressure/Unit • Units: Pascal (Pa), atmosphere, bar, psi
• Principles of pressure transducers Pascal: SI unit for pressure – the pressure or stress
that arises when a force of one newton (N) is
yp of p
• Types pressure transducers: applied
app ed uniformly
u o yo over
e a
an a
area
ea o
of o
one
e squa
square
e
– Barometer, Manometers (indication) metre (m2).
– Pressure transducers (indication and control) Pa = N/m2, kPa = 103 pascals, MPa = 106 pascals
Atmosphere (atm): 1 atm = 101.325 Pa
– D/P transmitters (indication and control)
Bar: 1 bar = 105 Pa
• Applications of pressure transducers Psi (pounds-force per square inch absolute): 1 Pa =
0.000145 Psi, 1000 Pa = 0.145 Psi

Pressure-unit conversion factors Gauge, Absolute and Differential Pressures

• All pressures must be measured relative to
some reference.

• 1 torr = 1 mm mercury (mmHg) = 1.33322 • Absolute: p2 = 0

mbar
• Atmospheric (gauge): p2 = atmospheric pre
• Differential: p2 = certain pressure

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 Pressure Measuring Methods Mercury Barometer
• General principle: Pressure can be
converted to force by letting it act on a know
area: diaphragm, Bourdon tube, bellows,
flapper-nozzle, piezoelectric
• Evanelista Torricelli
• High vacuum pressure measurement is not (1608-1647) invented the
related to force measurement: column of Torricelli Mercury
liquid as in manometers Barometer in 1644. He
used a long glass tube,
• Differential pressure transmitter: converts closed at the upper end,
pressure to other types of signal, e.g. open at the lower and
electrical signals (4 mA – 20 mA) filled with mercury.
http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Torricelli.html

Collection of Mercury Barometers Bellows Type Pressure Instrument

• Metallic bellows: 0.5-
75psi, used with a heavy
range spring up to
1000psi
• Bellows: one-piece,
collapsible, seamless
metallic unit that has
deep folders formed from
very thin walled tubing
• Diameter: 0.5 – 12 inches
www.medfordclock.com/

Bourdon Tube Pressure of Liquid (at depth)

• Principle and Range
• P: pressure at depth h, A: cross-sectional area of
Eugène Bourdon (1808-1884)
a cylinder, ρ: density, and g: acceleration of
gravity (9.81 m/s2)

p = ρgh
p
h=
ρg
• h is called static head in mmHg or mm of water

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 Manometers U-tube Manometer
• Simplest differential pressure instrument – liquid
filled manometer
• U-tube Manometer
p1 − p 2 = ρgh
• Well-typed Manometer
• Inclined Manometer p1 − p 2 = ( ρ − ρ1 ) gh
• ρ: density of liquid
in U-tube (Mercury)
• ρ >> ρ1

p1 − p 2 = ρgh

Well-typed Manometer Well-typed Manometer

• Well-typed or Reservoir Manometer • Well-typed manometer with zeroing
adjustment

p1 − p 2 = ρgh

Inclined Manometer Summary of Manometers

• θ = angle of inclination of manometer
• h = vertical increase in head
• d = movement of column along limb
Pressure
h • Use: for static pressure measurement,
d= differential pressure measurement
sin θ • U-tube & Well-type: 1 mm Hg or water to 1 m
of Hg or water
water, approximately 1 mbar to 100
mbar or 1.5 bar
• Inclined: 1 mm to 300 mm of water,
approximate 1 mbar to 30 mbar
θ
• Disadvantages: not used in control systems

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 Pressure Detection Circuitry
Example: Application of manometer
Transducer – D/P Transmitters
• Converts pressure to other forms of signal, electrical
signal for indication and control
• Output: volt (0-5V, 0-10V) or current (4mA – 20mA)
• Commonly used types:
– Bellows/Bourdon resistance (potentiometer)
– Inductive
– Linear variable differential transformer (lvdt)
– Capacitive
– Diaphragm & inductive or piezoelectric (crystal materials)

D/P Transmitters Resistance Transducer

0-5V, -5-+5V • Combination of a bellows or a Bourdon tube
ΔP 0-10V,-10-+10V
with a variable resistor (potentiometer)
Pressure P1

Ref Pressure P2
4-20mA
Sensor
0-20mA
Signal conditioner
(converter, amplifier)
Recorder or
Indicator
http://www.enercorp.com (digital)

Inductive Pressure Transducers Capacitance Pressure Transducer

• Inductive pressure transducer • Principle

Inductive Lvdt More: http://www.fic-net.jp/eng/products/transmitter/top.html

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 Diaphragm Inductive or Differential Pressure Transmitters
Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers

http://www.foxboro.com

Principle of diaphragm Principle of diaphragm

& Piezoelectric pressure http://www.enercorp.com
and inductive pressure http://www.pressure-transducer.com
transducers transducers

Functional Uses of P. Transducers Applications in Control Systems

• Three basic functions: indication, alarm and
control (pressure, flow, level) • Flow control systems
• Environmental concerns: • Pressure control systems
– Atmospheric pressure: Pressure instrument is • Level control system
sensitive
iti tto variations
i ti iin th
the atmospheric
t h i
pressure surrounding the detector – cause the
indicated pressure to change
– Ambient temperature: resistance of components,
then reduce accuracy and reliability
– Humidity: high moisture affects electric/electronic
equipment: short circuits, grounds, corrosion
http://www.williamsfire.com/remotemonitors/remotemonitors.html

Summary of Topic 1 Topic 2: Flow Measurement

• Pressure measurement: units for pressure, • Learning Outcomes:
absolute, gauge and differential pressures – State flow velocity, volumetric flow rate, mass
• Pressure measuring methods: mercury flow rate
barometer Bourdon tube
barometer, tube, bellows type
type, – Describe flow measuring methods
manometers (U-tube, Well-type and – Describe types of flowmeter: orifice, venturi,
Inclined) pitot, flow nozzle, rotameter, and differential
pressure transmitter
• Pressure detection circuitry (transducers)
• Reading: Chapter 8
• D/P transmitters

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 Topic 2: Contents Flow Measurement
• Flow (velocity, volumetric flowrate, mass • Various physical properties are considered:
density, pressure, flow rate (velocity,
flowrate) and units
volume flow rate and mass flow rate) and
• Principles of flowmeters viscosity
• Types of flowmeters • Flow measurement involves liquids (water,
• Applications oil), gasses (compressed air) and
pneumatic and hydraulic systems
• Piping and pumping systems
• Offshore gas and oil industry

Flow Rate Flowrate Units

Volumetric flow rate is defined as follows: multiply by
to

Q=VxA US Imp
US
million ft3/sec m3/hr liters/sec barrels/min barrels/day

where
from GPM GPM
gal/day

Q = liquid flow rate through the pipe (m3/s) US GPM1) 1 0.8327 0.00144 0.00223 0.2271 0.0631 0.0238 34.286

V = average velocity of the flow (m/s) Imp GPM 1.201 1 0.00173 0.002676 0.2727 0.0758 0.02859 41.176

A = cross-sectional
cross sectional area of the pipe (m2) US million
694.4 578.25 1 1.547 157.7 43.8 16.53 23810
gal/day

Factors that affect liquid flow rate: ft3/sec 448.83 373.7 0.646 1 101.9 28.32 10.686 15388

1. liquid's viscosity and density, m3/hr 4.403 3.67 0.00634 0.00982 1 0.2778 0.1048 151

2. the friction of the liquid in contact with the pipe.

3. Reynold number: a dimensionless unit defined liters/sec 15.85 13.20 0.0228 0.0353 3.60 1 0.3773 543.3

as the ratio of the liquid's inertial forces to its barrels/min 42 34.97 0.0605 0.0937 9.538 2.65 1 1440

drag forces.
barrels/day 0.0292 0.0243 0.000042 0.000065 0.00662 0.00184 0.00069 1

Bernoulli's equation Velocity, Volume & Mass Flows

• Relationship between F.R. & Pressure
ΔP
• Velocity V=K
V1 V2 ρ
P1 P2
ΔP
ΔP
• Volume flow Q = VA = KA
1 3
restriction
2 ρ
V12 V22 ΔP
∑ f V2 = K
P1 P
+ = + 2+ • Mass flow W = Qρ = KA ΔPρ
2 ρ 2 ρ ρ

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 Flow Measurement Methods
Flow Measurement Methods
D/P Sensors
Numerous types of flowmeters are available
for closed-piping systems. In general, the
equipment can be classified as differential
pressure, positive displacement, velocity,
andd mass meters.
t
Differential pressure devices (also known as Orifice Flow Nozzle
head meters) include orifices, venturi tubes, Pitot Tube
flow tubes, flow nozzles, pitot tubes, elbow- Other methods:
tap meters, target meters, and variable- Variable-area (rotameter)
Positive displacement
area meters Velocity methods
Venturi Tube Elbow Tap
Mass-related methods
Ref: http://www.omega.com/techref/flowcontrol.html

Differential Pressure Methods D/P Methods: Orifice Plate

Differential-pressure flowmeters with variety of flow restricting elements (a through

f). 0 = flow, 1 = differential-pressure transduction element, 2 = pipe, 3 = orifice, 4 =
nozzle, 5 = Venturi tube, 6 = Pitot tube, 7 = centrifugal elbow, 8 = centrifugal loop.

Venturi-tube Method Flow Nozzle

Upstream pressure sensor Downstream pressure sensor

Nozzle shrinks down the cross-section area of

the pipe and create pressure differential

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 Flowmeter (D/P Type) Examples: D/P Typed Flowmeters
0-5V, -5-+5V
ΔP 0-10V,-10-+10V
Upstream P1

Downstream P2
4-20mA
Sensor Signal conditioner
0-20mA
Orifice (converter, amplifier)
The Model 340S SteaMeter is a The SITRANS DS III transmitter is
Venturi available for measuring pressure,
Inductance (lvdt) differential pressure type
Elbow Recorder or flowmeter capable of measuring absolute pressure, differential
Capacitance saturated steam flow. pressure, flow or level.
Indicator
(digital) Ref: http://www.sea.siemens.com
http://www.enercorp.com

Adv & Disadv of some flow sensors

Examples: Orifice Plate Flowmeter Sensor
Rangeability
1 Accuracy2
Dynamics
(s)
Advantages Disadvantages

Daniel® Senior® Orifice Flow Meter orifice 3.5:1 2-4% of full span -
-low cost
-extensive industrial practice
-high pressure loss
-plugging with slurries
provides a convenient way to change -lower pressure loss than
-high cost
orifice plates under pressure during line venturi 3.5:1 1% of full span - orifice
-slurries do not plug
-line under 15 cm

flow. The “Senior” meter saves users flow -good for slurry service -higher cost than orifice plate
3.5:1 2% full span -
time and dollars by eliminating costly nozzle -intermediate pressure loss -limited pipe sizes

by passes valves and other fittings.

by-passes, fittings elbow
meter
3:1
5-10%
5 10% of full
span
- -low pressure loss -very poor accuracy

0.5-1.5% of full -low pressure loss -poor performance with dirty or

annubar 3:1 -
Daniel® Simplex® Orifice Plate
span -large pipe diameters sticky fluids

Holders have universal orifice plates

-high cost
0.25% of -wide rangeability
turbine 20:1 - -strainer needed, especially for
measurement -good accuracy
and sealing units, and users trust
slurries

-wide rangeability
them for fast, economical removal vortex
shedding
10:1
1% of
measurement
-
-insensitive to variations in
density, temperature,
-expensive
and insertion of orifice plates. pressure, and viscosity

positive -high pressure drop

10:1 or 0.5% of -high reangeability
displace - -damaged by flow surge or
greater measurement -good accuracy
Ref: http://www.emersonprocess.com/ ment solids

Calibration of Flowmeters Maintenance

All flowmeters require an initial calibration. Most of the time, the
instrument is calibrated by the manufacturer for the specified
service conditions. However, if qualified personnel are available in
the plant, the user can perform his own calibrations.
The need to recalibrate depends to a great extent on how well the
meter fits the application. Some liquids passing through
flowmeters tend to be abrasive, erosive, or corrosive. In time,
portions
ti off the
th device
d i will ill deteriorate
d t i t sufficiently
ffi i tl to
t affect
ff t
performance. Some designs are more susceptible to damage
than others. For example, wear of individual turbine blades will
cause performance changes. If the application is critical,
flowmeter accuracy should be checked at frequent intervals. In
other cases, recalibration may not be necessary for years
because the application is noncritical, or nothing will change the
meter's performance. Some flowmeters require special
equipment for calibration. Most manufacturers will provide such
service in their plant or in the user's facility, where they will bring
the equipment for on-site calibration.
Ref: http://www.omega.com/techref/flowcontrol.html
• A number of factors influence maintenance requirements and the life expectancy of
flowmeters. The major factor, of course, is matching the right instrument to the
particular application. Poorly selected devices invariably will cause problems at an
early date. Flowmeters with no moving parts usually will require less attention than
units with moving parts. But all flowmeters eventually require some kind of
maintenance.
• Primary elements in differential pressure flowmeters require extensive piping, valves,
and fittings when they are connected to their secondary elements, so maintenance
may be a recurring effort in such installations. Impulse lines can plug or corrode and
have to be cleaned or replaced. And, improper location of the secondary element can
result in measurement errors. Relocating the element can be expensive.
• Flowmeters with moving parts require periodic internal inspection, especially if the
liquid being metered is dirty or viscous. Installing filters ahead of such units will help
minimize fouling and wear. Obstructionless instruments, such as ultrasonic or
electromagnetic meters, may develop problems with their secondary element's
electronic components. Pressure sensors associated with secondary elements should
be periodically removed and inspected.
• Applications where coatings may occur are also potential problems for obstructionless
instruments such as magnetic or ultrasonic units. If the coating is insulating, the
operation of magnetic flowmeters will ultimately be impaired if the electrodes are
insulated from the liquid. This condition will be prevented by periodic cleaning. With
ultrasonic flowmeters, refraction angles may change and the sonic energy absorbed
by the coating will cause the meter to become inoperative.
Ref: http://www.omega.com/techref/flowcontrol.html

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 Applications Current Status – Control Lab
Compressed air
(pneumatic supply)
• Flow control system
• Flow control Controlsystem:
valve DAQ and
LabVIEW
• PLCs:I/Pupdated
D/P Transmitter Converter

• Possible projects: control algorithms for

PC-based controller
flow control, hydraulic control
• Control laws: PID, self-tuning, optimal,
neural network, etc.

Orifice plate

Summary of Topic 2 Any Questions?

• Flow, units, measuring methods

• Flow measuring methods: Orifice, venturi,
pitot,, etc.
p
• Advantages and disadvantages
• Calibration and maintenance
• Applications of flowmeters

Tutorial

• Tutorial 5: transducers and temperature