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Understanding Atmospheric Storage Tanks

Liquids are accumulated and stored in tanks of various shapes and sizes throughout the chemical process
industries (CPI). A small number of companies have made the design, fabrication and erection of these
vessels their specialty. Initially, however, it is the process engineer who sizes and specifies tanks according
to a specific application’s needs. In order to develop a data sheet for tank specifications, it is important for a
process engineer to have a basic understanding of tanks and the related requirements.

Tanks are used to store many kinds of liquids. The focus here is on hydrocarbons, which deserve particular
care because of their flammable or combustible properties. Hydrocarbon liquids can be classified per Table
1 [1]. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has published several volumes on recommended
practices for fire protection, wherein guidelines pertaining to the storage of hydrocarbon liquids are included.

Tank classifications

According to the NFPA [2], atmospheric storage tanks are defined as those tanks that are designed to
operate at pressures between atmospheric and 6.9 kPa gage, as measured at the top of the tank. Such
tanks are built in two basic designs — the cone-roof design where the roof remains fixed, and the floating-
roof design where the roof floats on top of the liquid and rises and falls with the liquid level.

Fixed roof design. Fixed-roof tanks consist of a cylindrical shell with a permanently welded roof that can be
flat, conical or dome-shaped. Such tanks are used to store materials with a true vapor pressure of less than
10.3 kPa absolute [3].

External-floating roof design. In floating-roof storage tanks, the roof is made to rest on the stored liquid and
is free to move with the level of the liquid. These tanks reduce evaporation losses and control breathing
losses while filling. They are preferred for storage of petroleum products with a true vapor pressure of 10.3
to 76.5 kPa absolute [3]. There are principally three different types of external floating roofs and an internal
floating-roof tank. Figure 1 illustrates each of them.

•The pan-type roof (Figure 1.a) is a single-deck roof and has the following characteristics:

- Full contact with liquid surface

- Has a deck, hence any leak through the deck will cause it to sink

- Has no buoyancy other than that provided by the deck

- Rain or snow may cause deformation

- Is the least expensive of the floating roofs

•The pontoon-type roof (Figure 1.b) is a significant improvement over the pan roof. It has the following
characteristics:

- Increased buoyancy and stability

- Pontoons occupy about 20 – 40% of roof area

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•The double-deck roof (Figure 1.c) comprises upper and lower decks separated by bulkheads and trusses.
These roofs have the following characteristics:

- The space between the decks is separated into liquid-tight compartments

- Superior loading capacity

- Recommended for tank diameters below 12 m and above 60 m

Internal-floating roof design. These tanks (Figure 1.d) have an inside floating deck above which, there is a
permanently attached roof. Such tanks are preferred in areas of heavy snowfall where accumulation of
snow or water on the floating roof may affect buoyancy. In such tanks, the vapor space is normally
blanketed with an inert gas.

Physical criteria

Tank capacity. Three different types of tank capacity are defined — nominal, gross and net capacity.

For fixed-roof tanks, the nominal capacity is the geometric volume from the bottom of the tank up to the curb
angle, which is a metallic angle that is welded along the periphery at the top of the cylindrical portion of the
tank. In the case of floating-roof tanks, the nominal capacity is defined as the volume from the underside of
the roof deck up to the maximum floating position of the roof.

The gross capacity (sometimes referred to as the total capacity) is the volume from the bottom of the tank
up to its maximum, safe filling height.

The net capacity is the volume of the tank contents between the low-liquid level (LLL) and the high-liquid
level (HLL).

Tank dimensions. Various factors can affect the choice of tank dimensions. In general, tank heights do not
exceed one and a half times the diameter. In cases where availability of land is not a constraint, it is
justifiable to go for larger diameters in preference to height. As the tank height increases, wall thickness
plays a more important role. Higher tanks also put a greater load on the soil. If the pressure becomes more
than the soil-allowable bearing pressure, pile-supported foundations become necessary and are expensive.
This concern is particularly applicable for poor soils. In general, tanks that are higher than 15 m are not
commonly used in industry.

Tank-blanketing requirements

In many instances, the vapor space of tanks is blanketed with an inert gas. This may be needed when the
liquid’s vapors are harmful to health or when contact with air could lead to the formation of hazardous
compounds or product degradation.

To achieve an inert atmosphere in a tank, a blanketing valve senses the pressure in the vapor space of the
tank and controls the flow of inert gas (usually nitrogen) into the vapor space to maintain the tank pressure
within the desired limits. Blanketing pressures are typically in the range of 200–250 mm H2O.

When liquid is moved out of a tank or if the temperature decreases, a tank can experience vacuum
conditions. In this case, the blanketing valve provides primary vacuum relief to the tank by opening to allow
gas flow, and then resealing when the pressure has increased sufficiently. Secondary vacuum relief is
provided by pressure/vacuum vents (described later in the section on Pressure/vacuum vents). Figure 2
illustrates a typical process and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) for a blanketed tank that contains a
hydrocarbon mixture.

Tank venting

Several conditions that subject a tank to venting include the following:

•Inbreathing due to liquid movement out of the tank

•Inbreathing due to contraction or condensation of vapors caused by a decrease in the atmospheric

temperature (also called thermal inbreathing)

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•Outbreathing due to liquid movement into the tank

•Outbreathing due to expansion or vaporization of vapors caused by an increase in the atmospheric

temperature (also called thermal outbreathing)

•Outbreathing resulting from external fire

Inbreathing. According to the American Petroleum Institute (API) [4], the venting capacity for maximum
liquid movement out of a tank should be equivalent to 0.159 std m3/hr of air for each 0.159 m3/hr of the
maximum emptying rate of liquids. This holds for liquids of any flash point. In other words, for an emptying
rate of Qe m3/hr, the venting capacity should be Qe std m3/hr.

There are also requirements for thermal inbreathing. The API [4] furnishes these requirements as a function
of tank capacity in the form of tables. This information can also be expressed as an equation, wherein the
thermal venting is expressed as a function of tank capacity.

The total venting capacity can be expressed as a sum of liquid movement and thermal inbreathing.

For tanks up to 3,500 m3 capacity:

Vib = Qe + 0.178C

For tanks larger than 3,500 m3 capacity:

Vib = Qe + 3.20C0.651

where Qe represents venting capacity due to liquid movement and the second component represents that
due to thermal inbreathing. C is the tank capacity. The total venting requirement due to both liquid
movement as well as thermal venting is needed to ensure that the venting arrangement is designed for the
worst-case scenario.

Outbreathing. Whereas venting due to inbreathing is independent of flash point, the requirements for
outbreathing differ with flash point. For liquids with a flash point above 37.8°C or a normal boiling point
above 149°C, the required venting capacity for maximum liquid movement into a tank should be equivalent
to 0.170 std m3/hr of air for each 0.159 m3/hr of maximum filling rate. In other words, for a filling rate of Qf
m3/hr, the venting capacity should be 1.069Qf std m3/hr.

There are also requirements for thermal outbreathing. The total venting capacity, expressed as a sum of
liquid movement and thermal outbreathing can be expressed as follows.

For tanks up to 3,500 m3 capacity:

Vob = 1.069Qf + 0.107C

For tanks larger than 3,500 m3 capacity:

Vob = 1.069Qf + 1.92C0.651

For these liquids with a high flash point, the thermal outbreathing is roughly 60% of the thermal inbreathing
requirement. The reason for this is that the roof and shell temperatures cannot rise as rapidly as they can
fall, for example, during a sudden rain shower.

Liquids with a lower flash point, below 37.8°C, or a normal boiling point below 149°C, have the following
guidelines. The requirement of venting capacity for maximum liquid movement into a tank should be
equivalent to 0.340 std m3/hr of air for each 0.159 m3/hr of maximum filling rate. In other words, for a filling
rate of Qf m3/hr, the venting capacity should be 2.138Qf std m3/hr. Of course, there are additional
requirements for thermal outbreathing. The total venting capacity, expressed as a sum of liquid movement
and thermal outbreathing, can be expressed by the following equations.

For tanks up to 3,500 m3 capacity:

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Vob = 2.138Qf + 0.178C

and for tanks larger than 3,500 m3 capacity:

Vob = 2.138Qf + 3.20C0.651

Emergency Venting on Fire Exposure. When storage tanks are exposed to fire, the venting rate may exceed
the inbreathing or outbreathing rate that results from a combination of thermal effects and liquid movement.
For tanks subjected to fire exposure, the required venting capacities are given in Table 2 [4], for the
reference liquid, hexane.

The environmental factor, F, is taken as 1.0 for bare-metal tanks. For insulated tanks, F varies between
0.025 and 0.30, depending upon the insulation conductance. The details are furnished in API 2000 [4].

The values in Table 2 are for hexane. For other liquids, the following corrected venting rate is applied.

Vcorr = (3098 · Vhex )/(M0.5 · L)

where M is the molecular weight of the stored liquid and L is the latent heat of vaporization of the stored
liquid.

Emergency vents can be in the form of a gauge hatch that permits the cover to lift under high venting loads,
or a manhole cover that lifts when exposed to high venting loads (Figure 2).

Open vents. Tanks that store harmless or non-toxic liquids, such as firewater or service water, are vented to
the atmosphere. These tanks operate at atmospheric pressure and the venting is called open venting. While
being filled, the tank breathes out through the vent. When liquid is pumped out, the tank breathes in through
the vent. To prevent rain or snow from entering, the vent pipe is usually provided with a weather hood, or
alternatively, the pipe itself is shaped in the form of a goose neck.

According to API 2000 [4], open vents without flame arrestors may be used for venting under the following
circumstances:

•For storage of petroleum or petroleum products with a flash point of 37.8°C or above

•For tanks holding petroleum or petroleum products at a temperature below that of the flash point

•For storage of any product in tanks with a capacity of less than 9.46 m3

Flame arrestors need to be used with open venting of tanks that store petroleum or petroleum products that
have a flash point below 37.8°C.

Pressure/vacuum vents. Pressure/vacuum vents are usually employed to protect blanketed tanks. In
situations where the blanketing valve fails and gets stuck in the open position, the tank can be pressurized
by the continuous inflow of inert gas. A pressure vent will open to protect the tank from rupture. Conversely,
in situations where a tank is being emptied and the blanketing valve fails, the tank can reach vacuum
conditions. A vacuum valve will open, thus protecting the tank from collapse.

Pressure and vacuum vents may be weight- or spring-loaded. Springs are generally used at set pressures
above 7 kPa gage or at vacuum below –7 kPa gage. The pressure setting of the vent is kept slightly above
the tank blanketing pressure but below the maximum pressure the tank can withstand. Similarly, the
vacuum setting is kept higher than the normal operating vacuum, but at a vacuum level that is below the
maximum vacuum that the tank can withstand.

Because these vents are designed to remain closed until they must open in order to protect the tanks,
another advantage is that evaporation losses and fugitive emissions can be minimized by pressure and
vacuum vents. This is achieved by preventing the release of vapors that would otherwise occur during minor
variations in temperature, pressure or level.

Instrumentation

Providing proper instrumentation in tanks is an important consideration, especially for large tanks that are
subjected to frequent filling and emptying. The following guidelines may be useful for selecting tank
instrumentation.

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Level. At least two level instruments should be included — one with local indication and the other in the
control room. In many cases, two level instruments with both local and remote indications are used. High
and low level alarms are recommended.

Temperature. Both local indication and remote indication with an alarm in case of high storage temperatures
should be included.

Pressure and flow. In blanketed tanks, it is advisable to install a flow and a pressure indicator with alarms to
warn of problems in the blanketing gas line.

Structural accessories

Ladders and others. Auxiliary items such as ladders, staircases, handrails and walkways, are particularly
important for tank maintenance. Generally, tanks less than 6 m in height are provided with a ladder that is
not caged. Tanks that are taller than 6 m require a spiral stairway [5]. Floating-roof tanks are normally
provided with a ladder that automatically adjusts so that access to the roof is always provided. This type of
ladder is illustrated in Figure 3 for a typical external-floating tank.

Roof Drain. According to API Standard 650 [5], primary roof drains should be of the hose, jointed or siphon
type. A check valve should be provided near the roof end of the hose to prevent backflow of stored product
in case of a leak (Figure 3).

Manholes. Shell manholes are normally 600 mm in diameter. The minimum number of required manholes is
dependent on the tank diameter. Typical guidelines are as follows:

•Tanks with a diameter of less than 12 m: 1 manhole

•Tanks with diameters of 12-44 m:

2 manholes, spaced 180 deg. apart

•Tanks with diameters of 45-59 m:

3 manholes, spaced 120 deg. apart

•Tanks with a diameter over 60 m:

4 manholes, spaced 90 deg. apart

Guidelines for roof manholes are:

•For tanks less than 12 m in diameter, one roof manhole is enough

•For tanks larger than 12 m, two roof manholes are recommended

Bottom drains. Bottom drains, also referred to as water draw-off sumps, should be provided in all tanks for
draining water. They are also needed for tanks that store petroleum products in order to empty the tanks for
cleaning. API Standard 650 [5] provides dimensional details of such drains.

Figures 3 and 4 show typical structural accessories for both external and internal floating-roof tanks.

Spill control

Facilities should be provided in the tankage area to prevent accidental discharge of any Class I, II or IIIA
liquid from endangering adjoining property. National Fire Codes [6] describe the requirements in detail.
There are two types of facilities that can be provided.

Remote impounding. In this case, the adjoining property is protected by drainage of the discharge to a
remote impounding area. The following guidelines should be followed:

•A slope of not less than 1% should be provided for at least 15 m towards the impounding area

•The impounding area should have a capacity that can, at minimum, hold the contents of the largest tank
that may drain into it

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•Where it is not practical to have a 100% capacity remote impounding, partial remote impounding should be
provided. The remainder of the impounding volume should be provided by diking as discussed below

Impounding by diking. In cases where the adjoining property is protected by providing diked enclosures with
roads all around the enclosure, the following guidelines should be followed:

•The diked enclosure should be able to contain the complete contents of the largest tank in the tank farm in
case of any emergency. The capacity of the diked area should be calculated after deducting the volume of
the tanks (other than the largest tank) below the height of the dike

•The height of the dike wall should be a minimum of 1 m and not more than 1.8 m from that of the internal
grade

•The minimum distance between the tank shell and the base of the interior dike wall should be 1.5 m

Layout and design

NFPA provides detailed guidelines for layout and installation of above-ground storage tanks. Tanks storing
Class I, II or IIIA stable liquids should be separated in accordance with Table 3 [6]. An exception to this is
the case of crude-petroleum storage tanks with individual capacities that do not exceed 476 m3 and are in
production facilities in isolated locations. In such cases, the tanks need not be separated by more than 0.9
m.

After the process engineer has considered the basic tank requirements, a tank data sheet can be
generated. A typical tank data sheet, such as that shown in Table 4 (p. 83), illustrates all process features of
a tank including the dimensions, type, capacity, operating and design conditions, physical properties of the
liquid stored, materials of construction, corrosion allowances and insulation. In addition, it contains the
details of all nozzles in the tank, their designations, sizes and ratings. A process sketch should also be
included as part of the data sheet. The process engineer should also specify instrumentation needs, such
as pressure, level and temperature sensors.

Edited by Dorothy Lozowski

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