Life science

Life science is the study of living things. The life sciences comprise all fields of science that involve the
scientific study of living organisms, like plants, animals, and human beings. However, the study of
behaviour of organisms, such as practised in ethology and psychology, is only included in as much as it
involves a clearly biological aspect. While biology and medicine remain centerpieces of the life sciences,
technological advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a burgeoning of specializations
and new, often interdisciplinary, fields.
The following is an incomplete lists of life science fields, as well as topics of study in the life sciences, in
which several entries coincide with, are included in, or overlap with other entries:
1.Agrotechnology: Agricultural engineering is the engineering discipline that applies engineering science
and technology to agricultural production and processing. Agricultural engineering combines the disciplines
of animal biology, plant biology, and mechanical, civil, electrical and chemical engineering principles with
a knowledge of agricultural principles. It utilizes the knowledge of engineering for making agricultural
machinery
2.Bio-engineering : Biological engineering, biotechnological engineering or bioengineering (including
biological systems engineering) is the application of concepts and methods of physics and mathematics to
solve problems in life sciences, using engineering's own analytical and synthetical methodologies. In this
context, while traditional engineering applies physical and mathematical sciences to analyze, design and
manufacture inanimate tools, structures and processess, bioengineering uses the same sciences to study
many aspects of living organisms. Usually it is used to analyze and solve problems related to human health.
Biological engineering is a science based discipline founded upon the biological sciences in the same way that
chemical engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering are based upon chemistry,
electricity and magnetism, and statics, respectively
3.Biochemistry: Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes in living organisms. Biochemistry governs
all living organisms and living processes. By controlling information flow through biochemical signalling and
the flow of chemical energy through metabolism, biochemical processes give rise to the incredibly
complexity of life. Much of biochemistry deals with the structures and functions of cellular components such
as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and other biomolecules although increasingly processes
rather than individual molecules are the main focus. Over the last 40 years biochemistry has become so
successful at explaining living processes that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to
medicine are engaged in biochemical research. Today the main focus of pure biochemistry is in understanding
how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells which in turn relates greatly
to the study and understanding of whole organisms.
Among the vast number of different biomolecules, many are complex and large molecules (called polymers),
which are composed of similar repeating subunits (called monomers). Each class of polymeric biomolecule
has a different set of subunit types. For example, a protein is a polymer whose subunits are selected from a
set of 20 or more amino acids. Biochemistry studies the chemical properties of important biological
molecules, like proteins, and in particular the chemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
The biochemistry of cell metabolism and the endocrine system has been extensively described. Other areas
of biochemistry include the genetic code (DNA, RNA), protein synthesis, cell membrane transport, and
signal transduction.
4.Biocomputing :Biocomputing can mean at least two different things:
• it can be defined as the construction and use of computers which function like living organisms or
contain
biological components, so-called biocomputers. In this meaning it is closely related to DNA computing.
• Biocomputing can also be defined as the use of computers in biological research and in this case it is
referred to as bioinformatics.
5.Biomaterials:The development of biomaterials, as a science, is about fifty years old. The study of
biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its
history,withmany companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new
productsBiomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and
materials science
6.Biocontrol: Biological control of pests in agriculture is a method of controlling pests (including insects, mites,
weeds and plant diseases) that relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms. It can be an
important component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs.
Biological control is defined as the reduction of pest populations by natural enemies and typically involves an active
human role. Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological log control agents; and include predators,
parasitoids, and pathogens. Biological control agents of plant diseases are most often referred to as antagonists.
Biological control agents of weeds include herbivores and plant pathogens. Predators, such as birds, lady beetles and
lacewings, are mainly free-living species that consume a large number of prey during their whole lifetime. Parasitoids
are species whose immature develops on paper or within a single insect host, ultimately killing the host. Most have a
very narrow host range. Many species of wasps and some flies are parasitoids. Pathogens are disease-causing organisms
including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They kill or debilitate their own host and are relatively specific. There are three
basic types of biological control strategies; conservation, classical biological control, and augmentation
Biodynamics: Biodynamic agriculture is a method of organic farming that treats farms as unified and individual
organisms,emphasizing balancing the holistic development and interrelationship of the soil, plants, animals as a self-
nourishing system without external inputs insofar as this is possible given the loss of nutrients due to the export of food.
Regarded by some as the first modern ecological farming systemand one of the most sustainable biodynamic farming
has much in common with other organic approaches, such as emphasizing the use of manures and composts and
excluding of the use of artificial chemicals on soil and plants. Methods unique to the biodynamic approach include the
use of fermented herbal and mineral preparations as compost additives and field sprays and the use of an astronomical
sowing and planting calendar. Biodynamics originated out of the work of Rudolf Steiner, the founder of the spiritual
philosophy anthroposophy.
7.Bioinformatics: Bioinformatics is the application of statistics and computer science to the field of
molecular biology.
The term bioinformatics was coined by Paulien Hogeweg and Ben Hesper in 1978 for the study of
informatic processes in biotic systems. Its primary use since at least the late 1980s has been in genomics and
genetics, particularly in those areas of genomics involving large-scale DNA sequencing.
Bioinformatics now entails the creation and advancement of databases, algorithms, computational and
statistical techniques and theory to solve formal and practical problems arising from the management and
analysis of biological data.
Over the past few decades rapid developments in genomic and other molecular research technologies and
developments in information technologies have combined to produce a tremendous amount of information
related to molecular biology. It is the name given to these mathematical and computing approaches used to
glean understanding of biological processes.
Common activities in bioinformatics include mapping and analyzing DNA and protein sequences, aligning
different DNA and protein sequences to compare them and creating and viewing 3-D models of protein
structures.
The primary goal of bioinformatics is to increase the understanding of biological processes. What sets it apart
from other approaches, however, is its focus on developing and applying computationally intensive techniques
(e.g., pattern recognition, data mining, machine learning algorithms, and visualization) to achieve this
goal. Major research efforts in the field include sequence alignment, gene finding, genome assembly, drug
design, drug discovery, protein structure alignment, protein structure prediction, prediction of gene
expression and protein-protein interactions, genome-wide association studies and the modeling of
evolution.
8.Biology: Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their
structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing
many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines. Among the most important topics are five unifying principles that
can be said to be the fundamental axioms of modern biology:
Cells are the basic unit of life
New species and inherited traits are the product of evolution
Genes are the basic unit of heredity
 An organism regulates its internal environment to maintain a stable and constant condition
Living organisms consume and transform energy.
9.Biomechanics:Biomechanics (from Ancient Greek: βίος "life" and μηχανική "mechanics") is the
application of mechanical principles to biological systems, such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and
cellsPerhaps one of the best definitions was provided by Herbert Hatze in 1974: "Biomechanics is the study of
the structure and function of biological systems by means of the methods of mechanics".The word
biomechanics developed during the early 1970s, describing the application of engineering mechanics to
biological and medical systems. In Modern Greek, the corresponding term is εμβιομηχανική.
Biomechanics is close related to engineering, because it often uses traditional engineering sciences to analyse
biological systems. Some simple applications of Newtonian mechanics and/or materials sciences can supply
correct approximations to the mechanics of many biological systems. Applied mechanics, most notably
mechanical engineering disciplines such as continuum mechanics, mechanism analysis, structural
analysis, kinematics and dynamics play prominent roles in the study of biomechanics.
Usually biological system are more complex then man-built systems. Numerical methods are hence applied
in almost every biomechanical study. Research is done in a iterative process of hypothesis and verification,
including several steps of modeling, computer simulation and experimental measurements.
10.Biomedical sciences: A biomedical scientist (or biomedical doctor, biomedician, medical scientist), is
a scientist educated in the field of biological science, especially in the context of medicine. Biomedical
scientists are typically active in biomedical research in fields such as Anatomy, Physiology, Pharmacology,
Microbiology (Pathology in UK and US) and may have contact with patients in research protocols or in
medical laboratory. The recent trend is that these scientists work closely with engineers and technologists to
find innovative ways to cure diseases by developing advanced diagnostic tools and treatment methodologies
where physicians play a pivotal role.
The general motivation may be stated as: "to increase the body of scientific knowledge on topics related to
medicine." Biomedical scientists study disease, drugs, and other topics related to human health. Their role is
to develop or improve treatments, vaccines, equipment, and techniques involving health care.
Biomedical scientists tend to focus more on complex medical science and research over treatment techniques
and day-to-day medicine as their more patient-oriented physician counterparts.
Professionals educated in fields other than medicine might also contribute to medical overall knowledge.
Examples include biological scientists such as molecular biologists.
11.Biomolecular engineering: Molecular engineering is any means of manufacturing molecules. It may be used to
create, on an extremely small scale, most typically one at a time, new molecules which may not exist in nature, or be
stable beyond a very narrow range of conditions.
Today this is an extremely difficult process, requiring manual manipulation of molecules using such devices as a
scanning tunneling microscope. Eventually it is expected to exploit life-like self-replicating 'helper molecules' that are
themselves engineered. Thus the field can be seen as a precision form of chemical engineering that includes protein
engineering, the creation of protein molecules, a process that occurs naturally in biochemistry, e.g., prion
reproduction. However, it provides far more control than genetic modification of an existing genome, which must rely
strictly on existing biochemistry to express genes as proteins, and has little power to produce any non-proteins.
Molecular engineering is an important part of pharmaceutical research and materials science.
Emergence of scanning tunneling microscopes and picosecond-burst lasers in the 1990s, plus discovery of new carbon
nanotube applications to motivate mass production of these custom molecules, drove the field forward to commercial
reality in the 2000s.
As it matures, it is seeming to converge with mechanical engineering, since the molecules being designed often
resemble small machines. A general theory of molecular mechanosynthesis to parallel that of photosynthesis and
chemosynthesis (both used by living things) is the ultimate goal of the field. This may lead to a molecular assembler,
according to some, such as K. Eric Drexler, Ralph Merkle, and Robert Freitas, and of the potential for integrating
vast numbers of assemblers into a kg-scale nanofactory.
Molecular engineering is sometimes called generically "nanotechnology", in reference to the nanometre scale at
which its basic processes must operate. That term is considered to be vague, however, due to misappropriation of the
word in association with other techniques, such as X-ray lithography, that are not used to create new free-floating
ions or molecules.
Future developments in molecular engineering hold out the promise of great benefits, as well as great risks. See the
nanotechnology article for an extensive discussion of the more speculative aspects of the technology. Of these, the
one that sparks the most controversy is that of the molecular assembler.
12.Biomonitoring: In analytical chemistry, biomonitoring is the measurement of the body burden of
toxic chemical compounds, elements, or their metabolites, in biological substances. Often, these
measurements are done in blood and urine.
13.Biophysics:Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physical science to study
biological systems. Studies included under the branches of biophysics span all levels of biological
organization, from the molecular scale to whole organisms and ecosystems. Biophysical research shares
significant overlap with biochemistry, nanotechnology, bioengineering, agrophysics and systems biology.
14.Biopolymers: Biopolymers are polymers produced by living organisms. Cellulose, starch and chitin,
proteins and peptides, and DNA and RNA are all examples of biopolymers, in which the monomeric
units, respectively, are sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides.
Cellulose is both the most common biopolymer and the most common organic compound on Earth. About
33 percent of all plant matter is cellulose (the cellulose content of cotton is 90 percent and that of wood is 50
percent.
15.Biotechnology: Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and
bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. Modern use similar term
includes genetic engineering as well as cell- and tissue culture technologies. The concept encompasses a wide range
of procedures (and history) for modifying living organisms according to human purposes - going back to
domestication of animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ
artificial selection and hybridization. By comparison to biotechnology, bioengineering is generally thought of as a
related field with its emphasis more on higher systems approaches (not necessarily altering or using biological
materials directly) for interfacing with and utilizing living things.
Biotechnology draws on the pure biological sciences (genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture, molecular
biology, biochemistry, embryology, cell biology) and in many instances is also dependent on knowledge and
methods from outside the sphere of biology (chemical engineering, bioprocess engineering, information
technology, biorobotics). Conversely, modern biological sciences (including even concepts such as molecular
ecology) are intimately entwined and dependent on the methods developed through biotechnology and what is
commonly thought of as the life sciences industry.
16.Botany: Botany, plant science(s), phytology, or plant biology is a branch of biology that involves the scientific
study of plant life. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines concerned with the study of plants, algae and
fungi, including structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, chemical properties, and
evolutionary relationships among taxonomic groups. Botany began with early human efforts to identify edible,
medicinal and poisonous plants, making it one of the oldest sciences. Today botanists study over 550,000 species of
living organisms.
17.Cell biology: Cell biology (formerly cytology, from the Greek kytos, "container") is an academic discipline
that studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions with their
environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. Cell
biology research encompasses both the great diversity of single-celled organisms like bacteria and protozoa, as
well as the many specialized cells in multicellular organisms such as humans.
18.Cognitive neuroscience: Cognitive neuroscience is an academic field concerned with the scientific study of
biological substrates underlying cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates of mental processes.
It addresses the questions of how psychological/cognitive functions are produced by the brain. Cognitive
neuroscience is a branch of both psychology and neuroscience, overlapping with disciplines such as
physiological psychology, cognitive psychology and neuropsychology. Cognitive neuroscience relies upon
theories in cognitive science coupled with evidence from neuropsychology, and computational modelling
Due to its multidisciplinary nature cognitive neuroscientists may have various backgrounds. Other than the
associated disciplines just mentioned, cognitive neuroscientists may have backgrounds in these disciplines:
neurobiology, bioengineering, psychiatry, neurology, physics, computer science, linguistics,
philosophy and mathematics.
Methods employed in cognitive neuroscience include experimental paradigms from psychophysics and
cognitive psychology, functional neuroimaging, electrophysiology, cognitive genomics and behavioral
genetics. Studies of patients with cognitive deficits due to brain lesions constitute an important aspect of
cognitive neuroscience. Theoretical approaches include computational neuroscience and cognitive
psychology.

19.Computational neuroscience:Computational neuroscience is the study of brain function in terms of the

information processing properties of the structures that make up the nervous system. It is an interdisciplinary
science that links the diverse fields of neuroscience, cognitive science and psychology with electrical
engineering, computer science, mathematics and physics.
Computational neuroscience is somewhat distinct from psychological connectionism and theories of learning
from disciplines such as machine learning, neural networks and statistical learning theory in that it
emphasizes descriptions of functional and biologically realistic neurons (and neural systems) and their
physiology and dynamics. These models capture the essential features of the biological system at multiple
spatial-temporal scales, from membrane currents, protein and chemical coupling to network oscillations,
columnar and topographic architecture and learning and memory. These computational models are used to
frame hypotheses that can be directly tested by current or future biological and/or psychological experiments.
20.Ecology: Ecology (from Greek: οἶκος, "house"; -λογία, "study of") is the scientific study of the relation
of living organisms to each other and their surroundings. Ecosystems are defined by a web, community, or
network of individuals that arrange into a self-organized and complex hierarchy of pattern and process.
Ecosystems create a biophysical feedback between living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components of an
environment that generates and regulates the biogeochemical cycles of the planet. Ecosystems provide
goods and services that sustain human societies and general well-being. Ecosystems are sustained by
biodiversity within them. Biodiversity is the full-scale of life and its processes, including genes, species and
ecosystems forming lineages that integrate into a complex and regenerative spatial arrangement of types,
forms, and interactions.
Ecology is a sub-discipline of biology, the study of life. The word "ecology" ("oekologie") was coined in
1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919). Haeckel was a zoologist, artist, writer, and later
in life a professor of comparative anatomy. Ancient philosophers of Greece, including Hippocrates and
Aristotle, were among the earliest to record notes and observations on the natural history of plants and
animals; the early rudiments of modern ecology. Modern ecology mostly branched out of natural history
science that flourished in the late 19th century. Charles Darwin's evolutionary treatise and the concept of
adaptation as it was introduced in 1859 is a pivotal cornerstone in modern ecological theory
21.Environmental science: Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates
physical and biological sciences, (including physics, chemistry, biology, soil science, geology, and
geography) to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental
science provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental
systems.
Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth processes, evaluating alternative
energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural resource management, and the effects of
global climate change. Environmental issues almost always include an interaction of physical, chemical,
and biological processes. Environmental scientists bring a systems approach to the analysis of
environmental problems. Key elements of an effective environmental scientist include the ability to relate
space, and time relationships as well as quantitative analysis.
22.Genetics:Genetics (from Ancient Greek γενετικός genetikos, “genitive” and that from γένεσις genesis,
“origin”), a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms.
Genetics deals with the molecular structure and function of genes, with gene behavior in the context of a
cell or organism (e.g. dominance and epigenetics), with patterns of inheritance from parent to offspring, and
with gene distribution, variation and change in populations. Given that genes are universal to living
organisms, genetics can be applied to the study of any living system from viruses and bacteria, through
plants (especially crops) to humans (for example in Medical Genetics)
The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to improve
crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the modern science of genetics, which seeks to
understand the process of inheritance, only began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century.
Although he did not know the physical basis for heredity, Mendel observed that organisms inherit traits via
discrete units of inheritance, which are now called genes.

23.Food science: Food science is a study concerned with all technical aspects of food, beginning with
harvesting or slaughtering, and ending with its cooking and consumption, an ideology commonly referred to
as "from field to fork". It is considered one of the life sciences and is usually considered distinct from the field
of nutrition.
Food science is a highly interdisciplinary applied science. It incorporates concepts from many different fields
including microbiology, chemical engineering, and biochemistry.
Some of the subdisciplines of food science include:
• Food safety - the causes, prevention and communication dealing with foodborne illness
• Food microbiology - the positive and negative interactions between micro-organisms and foods
• Food preservation - the causes and prevention of quality degradation
• Food engineering - the industrial processes used to manufacture food
• Product development - the invention of new food products
• Sensory analysis - the study of how food is perceived by the consumer's senses
• Food chemistry - the molecular composition of food and the involvement of these molecules in
chemical reactions
• Food packaging - the study of how packaging is used to preserve food after it has been processed
and contain it through distribution.
• Molecular gastronomy - the scientific investigation of processes in cooking, social & artistic
gastronomical phenomena
• Food technology - the technological aspects
• Food physics - the physical aspects of foods (such as viscosity, creaminess, and texture)
24.Genomics: Genomics is a discipline in genetics concerning the study of the genomes of organisms. The
field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale genetic
mapping efforts. The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis,
pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome. In contrast, the investigation
of the roles and functions of single genes is a primary focus of molecular biology or genetics and is a
common topic of modern medical and biological research. Research of single genes does not fall into the
definition of genomics unless the aim of this genetic, pathway, and functional information analysis is to
elucidate its effect on, place in, and response to the entire genome's networks.
For the United States Environmental Protection Agency, "the term "genomics" encompasses a broader
scope of scientific inquiry associated technologies than when genomics was initially considered. A genome
is the sum total of all an individual organism's genes. Thus, genomics is the study of all the genes of a cell,
or tissue, at the DNA (genotype), mRNA (transcriptome), or protein (proteome) levels
25.Health sciences: Health science or biomedical science is the applied science dealing with health.
There are two approaches to health science: the study and research of the food that we eat; and the study
and research of health-related issues to understand how humans and other animals function, and the
application of that knowledge to improve health and to prevent and cure diseases.
Health research builds upon the natural sciences of biology, chemistry, and physics as well as a variety of
multidisciplinary fields. Some of the other primarily research-oriented fields that make contributions to
health science are biochemistry, epidemiology, genetics, and pharmacology A myriad of applied health
specializations and professions also endeavor to better understand health, but in addition they try to directly
improve the health of individuals and of people in general, as well as of other animals. Some of these are:
biomedical engineering, biotechnology, clinical laboratory science, medicine, nursing, nutrition,
pharmacy, public health, psychology, and physical therapy. The provision of services to improve
people's health is referred to as health care.
The health sciences industry, a multi-billion dollar business sector, is a cross-section of the life sciences
and the health care and medical diagnostics industries.
26.Immunology: Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects of the
immune system in all organisms It deals with the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health
 and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities,
immune deficiency, transplant rejection); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of
the immune system in vitro, in situ, and in vivo. Immunology has applications in several disciplines of science,
27.Microbiology Microbiology (from Greek μῑκρος, mīkros, "small"; βίος, bios, "life"; and -λογία, -logia)
is the study of microorganisms, which are microscopic, unicellular, and cell-cluster organisms. This
includes eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes. Viruses and prions, though not strictly
classed as living organisms, are also studied. Microbiology typically includes the study of the immune
system, or Immunology. Generally, immune systems interact with pathogenic microbes; these two
disciplines often intersect which is why many colleges offer a paired degree such as "Microbiology and
Immunology".
Microbiology is a broad term which includes virology, mycology, parasitology, bacteriology and other
branches. A microbiologist is a specialist in microbiology and these other topics.
Microbiology is researched actively, and the field is advancing continually. It is estimated only about one
percent of all of the microbe species on Earth have been studied. Although microbes were directly observed
over three hundred years ago, the field of microbiology can be said to be in its infancy relative to older
biological disciplines such as zoology and botany.
28.Molecular biology: Molecular biology is the branch of biology that deals with the nature of biological
phenomena at the molecular level through the study of DNA and RNA, proteins, and other macromolecules
involved in genetic information and cell function. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and
chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with
understanding and the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between
the different types of DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis as well as learning how these interactions are
regulated.
29.Nanotechnology: Nanotechnology (sometimes shortened to "nanotech") is the study of manipulating
matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally nanotechnology deals with structures sized between 1
to 100 nanometer in at least one dimension, and involves developing materials or devices within that size.
Quantum mechanical effects are very important at this scale.
Nanotechnology is very diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new
approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the
nanoscale to investigating whether we can directly control matter on the atomic scale.
There is much debate on the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able to create
many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in medicine, electronics,
biomaterials and energy production. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as
any new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials, and
their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios.
These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special
regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.
30.Oncology: Oncology (from the Ancient Greek onkos (ὄγκος), meaning bulk, mass, or tumor, and the suffix
-logy (-λογία), meaning "study of") is a branch of medicine that deals with tumors (cancer). A medical professional
who practices oncology is an oncologist.
Oncology is concerned with:
• The diagnosis of any cancer in a person
• Therapy (e.g., surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and other modalities)
• Follow-up of cancer patients after successful treatment
• Palliative care of patients with terminal malignancies
• Ethical questions surrounding cancer care
• Screening efforts:
 of populations, or
 of the relatives of patients (in types of cancer that are thought to have a hereditary basis, such as breast cancer)
31.Optometry: Optometry is a health care profession concerned with eyes and related structures, as well as vision,
visual systems, and vision information processing in humans. Optometrists are qualified to diagnose and treat eye
diseases such as infections and glaucoma.
Like most professions, optometry education, certification, and practice is regulated in most countries. Optometrists and
optometry-related organizations interact with governmental agencies, other health care professionals, and the community
to deliver eye and vision care. Optometrists are one of three eye care professionals, the others being ophthalmologists
(medical doctors), and opticians.
32.Pharmacology: Pharmacology (from Greek φάρμακον, pharmakon, "drug"; and -λογία, -logia) is the
branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. More specifically, it is the study of
the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical
function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. The field
encompasses drug composition and properties, interactions, toxicology, therapy, and medical applications and
antipathogenic capabilities. The two main areas of pharmacology are pharmacodynamics and
pharmacokinetics. The former studies the effects of the drugs on biological systems, and the latter the effects
of biological systems on the drugs. In broad terms, pharmacodynamics discusses the interactions of chemicals
with biological receptors, and pharmacokinetics discusses the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and
excretion of chemicals from the biological systems. Pharmacology is not synonymous with pharmacy and the
two terms are frequently confused. Pharmacology deals with how drugs interact within biological systems to
affect function. It is the study of drugs, of the reactions of the body and drug on each other, the sources of drugs,
their nature, and their properties. In contrast, pharmacy is a biomedical science concerned with preparation,
dispensing, dosage, and the safe and effective use of medicines.
33.Physiology: Physiology is the science of the function of living systems. It is a subcategory of biology. In
physiology, the scientific method is applied to determine how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells and
biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical function that they have in a living system. The word
physiology is from Ancient Greek: φύσις, physis, "nature, origin"; and -λογία, -logia, "study of".
Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans in good
health, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at
the level of organs and systems within systems. Much of the foundation of knowledge in human physiology was
provided by animal experimentation.Physiology is closely related to anatomy; anatomy is the study of form, and
physiology is the study of function. Due to the frequent connection between form and function physiology and
anatomy are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.
34.Proteomics: Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions. Proteins are
vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological metabolic pathways of cells. The
term "proteomics" was first coined in 1997 to make an analogy with genomics, the study of the genes. The word
"proteome" is a blend of "protein" and "genome", and was coined by Marc Wilkins in 1994 while working on the
concept as a PhD student. The proteome is the entire complement of proteins, including the modifications made to a
particular set of proteins, produced by an organism or system. This will vary with time and distinct requirements, or
stresses, that a cell or organism undergoes.
35.Structural biology: Structural biology is a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned
with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules, especially proteins and nucleic acids, how they acquire the
structures they have, and how alterations in their structures affect their function. This subject is of great interest to
biologists because macromolecules carry out most of the functions of cells, and because it is only by coiling into specific
three-dimensional shapes that they are able to perform these functions. This architecture, the "tertiary structure" of
molecules, depends in a complicated way on the molecules' basic composition, or "primary structures."Hemoglobin,
the oxygen transporting protein found in red blood cells
36.Biomolecules are too small to see in detail even with the most advanced light microscopes. The methods that
structural biologists use to determine their structures generally involve measurements on vast numbers of identical
molecules at the same time. These methods include:
• Macromolecular crystallography,
• NMR,
• Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM)
• Multiangle light scattering,
• Small angle scattering,
• Ultra fast laser spectroscopy, and
• Dual Polarisation Interferometry and circular dichroism.
Most often researchers use them to study the static "native states" of macromolecules. But variations on these methods are
also used to watch nascent or denatured molecules assume or reassume their native states. See protein folding.
A third approach that structural biologists take to understanding structure is bioinformatics to look for patterns among
the diverse sequences that give rise to particular shapes. Researchers often can deduce aspects of the structure of
integral membrane proteins based on the membrane topology predicted by hydrophobicity analysis..

36.Tissue engineering: Tissue engineering was once categorized as a sub-field of bio materials, but having
grown in scope and importance it can be considered as a field in its own right. It is the use of a combination of
cells, engineering and materials methods, and suitable biochemical and physio-chemical factors to improve or
replace biological functions. While most definitions of tissue engineering cover a broad range of applications, in
practice the term is closely associated with applications that repair or replace portions of or whole tissues (i.e.,
bone, cartilage, blood vessels, bladder, skin etc.). Often, the tissues involved require certain mechanical and
structural properties for proper functioning. The term has also been applied to efforts to perform specific
biochemical functions using cells within an artificially-created support system (e.g. an artificial pancreas, or a
bio artificial liver). The term regenerative medicine is often used synonymously with tissue engineering,
although those involved in regenerative medicine place more emphasis on the use of stem cells to produce
tissues.

37.Zoology: Zoology occasionally also spelt zoölogy, is the branch of biology which relates to the animal
kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals,
both living and extinct. The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον (zōon, “animal”) + λόγος (logos,
“knowledge”).
Biological classification
Biological classification, or scientific classification in biology, is a method by which biologists group and
categorize organisms by biological type, such as genus or species. Biological classification is a form of
scientific taxonomy.
Modern biological classification has its root in the work of Carolus Linnaeus, who grouped species
according to shared physical characteristics. These groupings have since been revised to improve consistency
with the Darwinian principle of common descent. Molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as
data, has driven many recent revisions and is likely to continue to do so. Biological classification belongs to
the science of biological systematics.
In biological classification, rank is the level (the relative position) in a hierarchy. Sometimes (but only rarely)
the term "taxonomic category" is used instead of "rank". There are 7 main ranks defined by the international
nomenclature codes: Kingdom, phylum/division, class, order, family, genus, species. "Domain", a level
above kingdom, has become popular in recent years, but has not been accepted into the codes.
The most basic rank is that of species, the next most important is genus, and then family.The International
Code of Zoological Nomenclature defines rank, in the nomenclatural sense, as: The level, for nomenclatural
purposes, of a taxon in a taxonomic hierarchy (e.g. all families are for nomenclatural purposes at the same
rank, which lies between superfamily and subfamily
There are slightly different ranks for zoology and for botany, including subdivisions such as tribe.

Main ranks:Every individual plant is treated as belonging to an indefinite number of taxa of consecutively
subordinate rank, among which the rank of species (species) is basic."
In his landmark publications, such as the Systema Naturae, Carl Linnaeus used a ranking scale limited to:
kingdom, class, order, genus, species, and one lower rank, below species. Today, nomenclature is regulated
by the Nomenclature Codes, which allow names divided into an indefinite number of ranks. There are
seven main taxonomic ranks: kingdom, phylum or division (see table), class, order, family, genus, species.
In addition, the domain (proposed by Carl Woese) is now widely used as one of the fundamental ranks,
although it is not mentioned in any of the Nomenclature Codes.

Main taxonomic ranks

Latin English
regio domain
regnum kingdom
phylum divisio phylum1 division2
classis class
ordo order
familia family
genus genus
species species

Notes to table 1 used in zoology ,2 used in botany

A taxon is usually assigned a taxonomic rank (in a hierarchy), usually when it is given its formal name. The
basic rank is that of species. The next most important rank is that of genus: if an organism is given a species
name it will at the same time be assigned to a genus, as the genus name is part of the species name. The
third-most important rank, although it was not used by Linnaeus, is that of family.
 The species name is sometimes called a binomial (a two-term name). For example, the zoological name for
the human species is Homo sapiens: this is usually italicized in print (and underlined when italics are not
available). In this case, Homo is the generic name and refers to the genus; it is capitalized; sapiens indicates
the species: it is writt Ranks in zoologyen in lower case

Ranks in zoology:here are definitions of the following taxonomic ranks in the International Code of
Zoological Nomenclature: superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe, subtribe, genus, subgenus, species,
subspecies.
The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature divides names into "family-group names", "genus-group
names" and "species-group names". The Code explicitly mentions:
• Superfamily-
• Family
• Subfamily
• Tribe
• Subtribe
• Genus
• Subgenus
• Species
• Subspecies
The rules in the Code apply to the ranks of superfamily to subspecies, and only to some extent to those above
the rank of superfamily. In the "genus group" and "species group" no further ranks are allowed. Among
zoologists, additional terms such as species group, species subgroup, species complex and superspecies are
sometimes used for convenience as extra, but unofficial, 'ranks' between the subgenus and species levels in
taxa with many species (e.g., the genus Drosophila).
At higher ranks (family and above) a lower level may be denoted by adding the prefix "infra", meaning lower,
to the rank. For example infraorder (below suborder) or infrafamily (below subfamily).
Names of zoological taxa
• A taxon above the rank of species gets a scientific name in one part (a uninominal name)
• A species (a taxon at the rank of species) gets a name composed of two names (a binomial name or
binomen : generic name + specific name; for example Panthera leo, the lion).
• A subspecies (a taxon at the rank of subspecies) gets a name composed of three names (a trinomial
name or trinomen : generic name + specific name + subspecific name; for example Canis lupus
familiaris, the house dog). As there is only one rank below that of species, no connecting term to
indicate rank is used.

Ranks in botany
There are definitions of the following taxonomic ranks in the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature:
kingdom (regnum), subregnum, division or phylum (divisio, phylum), subdivisio or subphylum, class
(classis), subclassis, order (ordo), subordo, family (familia), subfamilia, tribe (tribus), subtribus, genus
(genus), subgenus, section (sectio), subsectio, series (series), subseries, species (species), subspecies, variety
(varietas), subvarietas, form (forma), subforma.
There are definitions of following taxonomic ranks in International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated
Plants: cultivar group, cultivar.
The most important ranks of taxa are: kingdom, division or phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
According to Art 4.1 the secondary ranks of taxa are tribe, section, series, variety and form. There is an
indeterminate number of ranks. The ICBN explicitly mentions:

• kingdom (regnum)
• subregnum
• division or phylum (divisio, phylum)
 • subdivisio or subphylum
• class (classis)
• subclassis
• order (ordo)
• subordo
• family (familia)
• subfamilia
• tribe (tribus)

• subtribus
• genus (genus)
• subgenus
• section (sectio)
• subsectio
• series (series)
• subseries
• species (species)
• subspecies
• variety (varietas)
• subvarietas
• form (forma)
• subforma

The rules in the ICBN apply primarily to the ranks of family and below, and only to some extent to those
above the rank of family.

Names of botanical taxa

The botanical names used by Linnaeus only names of genera, species and varieties are still used.
Taxa at the rank of genus and above get a botanical name in one part (unitary name); those at the rank of
species and above (but below genus) get a botanical name in two parts (binary name); all taxa below the rank
of species get a botanical name in three parts (ternary name).
For hybrids getting a hybrid name, the same ranks apply, preceded by "notho", with nothogenus as the
highest permitted rank. (The hybrid's nothotaxon is an alias for a list of all of the taxa which are ancestral to
the hybrid.)
Notes:

• The ranks of higher taxa, especially intermediate ranks, are prone to revision as new information about
relationships is discovered. For example, the traditional classification of primates (class Mammalia —
subclass Theria — infraclass Eutheria — order Primates) has been modified by new classifications such
as McKenna and Bell (class Mammalia — subclass Theriformes — infraclass Holotheria) with Theria
and Eutheria assigned lower ranks between infraclass and the order Primates.
• Animals may be classified into subspecies (for example, Homo sapiens sapiens, modern humans) or
morphs (for example Corvus corax varius morpha leucophaeus, the Pied Raven). Plants may be
classified into subspecies (for example, Pisum sativum subsp. sativum, the garden pea) or varieties (for
example, Pisum sativum var. macrocarpon, snow pea), with cultivated plants getting a cultivar name (for
example, Pisum sativum var. macrocarpon 'Snowbird'). Bacteria may be classified by strains (for
example Escherichia coli O157:H7, a strain that can cause food poisoning).

Examples
Classifications of five species follow: the fruit fly so familiar in genetics laboratories (Drosophila
melanogaster), humans (Homo sapiens), the peas used by Gregor Mendel in his discovery of genetics
(Pisum sativum), the "fly agaric" mushroom Amanita muscaria, and the bacterium Escherichia coli.
The eight major ranks are given in bold; a selection of minor ranks are given as well.

Rank Fruit fly Human Pea Fly Agaric E. coli

Domain Eukarya Eukarya Eukarya Eukarya Bacteria

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae Fungi Bacteria

Phylum or
Arthropoda Chordata Magnoliophyta Basidiomycota Proteobacteria
Division

Subphylum
or Hexapoda Vertebrata Magnoliophytina Agaricomycotina
subdivision

Class Insecta Mammalia Magnoliopsida Agaricomycetes Gammaproteobacteria

Subclass Pterygota Theria Rosidae Agaricomycetidae

Order Diptera Primates Fabales Agaricales Enterobacteriales

Suborder Brachycera Haplorrhini Fabineae Agaricineae

Family Drosophilidae Hominidae Fabaceae Amanitaceae Enterobacteriaceae

Subfamily Drosophilinae Homininae Faboideae Amanitoideae

Genus Drosophila Homo Pisum Amanita Escherichia

D.
Species H. sapiens P. sativum A. muscaria E. coli
melanogaster

Binomial nomenclature
The formal system of naming species of living things is called binomial nomenclature (especially in
botany, but also used by zoologists), binominal nomenclature (since 1953 the technically correct form
in zoology), or binary nomenclature. This system of naming was invented by Linnaeus. The up-to-
date version of the rules of naming for animals and plants are laid out in the International Code of
Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature respectively.
The essence of the binomial system of naming is this: each species name has two parts, the genus name
and the species name (also known as the specific epithet), for example, Homo sapiens, which is the
scientific name of the human species. Every two-part scientific name is either formed out of (modern
scientific) Latin or is a Latinized version of words from other languages.
The two-part name of a species is commonly known as its Latin name. However, biologists and
philologists prefer to use the term scientific name rather than "Latin name", because the words used to
create these names are not always from the Latin language, even though words from other languages
have usually been Latinized in order to make them suitable for this purpose. Species names are often
derived from Ancient Greek words, or words from numerous other languages. Frequently species
names are based on the surname of a person, such as a well-regarded scientist, or are a Latinized version
of a relevant place name.
Carl von Linné (also known as Linnaeus) chose to use a two-word naming system, and did not use
what over time came to be a full seven-category system (kingdom-phylum-class-order-family-genus-
species.) Linnaeus chose a binomial nomenclature scheme, using only the genus name and the specific
name or epithet which together form the whole name of the species. For example, humans belong to
genus Homo and their specific name is sapiens. Humans as a species are thus classified as Homo
sapiens. The first letter of the first name, the genus, is always capitalized, while that of the second is not,
even when derived from a proper noun such as the name of a person or place. Conventionally, all
names of genera and lower taxa are always italicised, while family names and higher taxa are printed in
plain text. Species can be divided into a further rank, giving rise to a trinomial name for a subspecies
(trinomen for animals, ternary name for plants).
Biologists, when using a name of a species, usually also give the authority and date of the species
description. Thus zoologists will give the name of a particular sea snail species as: Patella vulgata
Linnaeus, 1758. The name "Linnaeus" tells the reader who it was that described the species; 1758 is the
date of the publication in which the original description can be found, in this case the book Systema
Naturae.
Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778), a Swedish botanist, invented the modern system of binomial
nomenclature.
The adoption of a system of binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl von
Linné also known by his Latinized name Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778). Linnaeus attempted to
describe the entire known natural world, giving every species (mineral, plant, or animal) a two-part
name. This was an improvement over descriptive names that involved a whole descriptive phrase
comprising numerous words. However, binomial nomenclature in various forms had existed before
Linnaeus, and was used by the Bauhins, who lived nearly two hundred years earlier.
Derivation
The genus name and specific descriptor may come from any source. Often they are ordinary New Latin
words, but they may also come from Ancient Greek, from a place, from a person (often a naturalist), a
name from the local language etc. In fact, taxonomists come up with specific descriptors from a variety
of sources, including in-jokes and puns. However, names are always treated grammatically as if they
were a Latin phrase.
Genus name
The genus name or generic epithet must be unique inside each kingdom. It is the nominative singular
form of a noun or an adjective treated as a noun in Latin grammar.Family names are often derived
from a common genus within the family.
 Species name
The species name or specific epithet is also a Latin word, but it can be one of various grammatical forms,
including the following:
A nominative form: of a noun, in apposition with the genus, for example, the lion Panthera leo. The
two nouns do not have to agree in gender: in this case, Panthera is feminine and leo is masculine.
of an adjective, modifying the genus name, as in the house sparrow Passer domesticus. Here
domesticus ("domestic") simply means "associated with the house".
A genitive (possessive) form: of a person's surname, as in the Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsonii,
the shrub Magnolia hodgsonii, or the Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni. Here, the person named is
not usually (if ever) the person who names the species; for example Anthus hodgsoni was named by
Charles Wallace Richmond, in honour of Hodgson.
of a place name, as with Latimeria chalumnae ("of the Chalumna River") of a common noun
(singular or plural), as in the bacterium Escherichia coli. This is common in parasites, as in Xenos
vesparum where vesparum simply means "of the wasps"
The same specific name is quite commonly used in two or more different genera (as is shown by
examples of hodgsonii above).
Codes
From the mid nineteenth century onwards it became ever more apparent that a body of rules was
necessary to govern scientific names. In the course of time these became Nomenclature Codes
governing the naming of animals (ICZN), plants (incl. Fungi, cyanobacteria) (ICBN), and bacteria
(incl. Archaea) (ICNB). Virus names are governed by a taxonomic code, which determines taxa as well
as names (ICTV). These codes differ in certain ways, e.g.:
The ICBN, the plant Code, does not allow tautonyms, whereas the ICZN, the animal Code, does.
The starting points, the time from which these codes are in effect (retroactively), vary
from group to group.
In botany the starting point will often be in 1753 (the year Carl Linnaeus first published Species
Plantarum).
In zoology the starting point is 1758 (1 January 1758 is considered the date of the publication of
Linnaeus's Systema Naturae, 10th Edition, and also Clerck's Aranei Svecici).
Bacteriology started anew, with a starting point on 1980-01-01.
A BioCode has been suggested to replace several codes, although implementation is not in sight. There
is also a code in development for naming clades, called the PhyloCode.
Rules
Although the fine detail differs, there are certain aspects which are universally adopted:
As the words "binomial", "binominal" and "binary" all signify, the scientific name of each species is
formed by the combination of two words, which are in a modern form of Latin:
1. The genus name (also called the generic name).
2. A second word identifying the species within that genus, for which the technical term varies, as follows:
• a general term for the word identifying the species is the specific descriptor
• in zoology, the word identifying the species is called the specific name
• in botany, the word identifying the species is called the specific epithet
Species names are usually typeset in italics; for example, Homo sapiens. Generally the binomial
should be printed in a font different from that used in the normal text; for example, "Several more
Homo sapiens were discovered." When handwritten, they should be underlined; for example, Homo
sapiens. Each name should be underlined individually.
• The genus name is always written with an initial capital letter.
• In current usage, the species name is never written with an initial capital. For example, the entire
tiger species is Panthera tigris
• Some older works, on the other hand, wrote some specific names with an initial capital, principally
those derived from proper nouns, e.g. Berberis Darwinii
 • There are several terms for this two-part species name; these include binomen (plural binomina),
binomial <name>, binominal <name>, and species name.
• All taxa at ranks above species have a name composed of one word only, a "uninominal name".
• The first level subdivisions within a species, termed subspecies, are each given a name with three
parts: these are the two forming the species name, plus a third part (the subspecific name) which
identifies the subspecies within the species. This is called trinomial nomenclature, and is written
differently in zoology and botany.For example:
• Two of the subspecies of Olive-backed Pipit are Anthus hodgsoni berezowskii and
Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni
• The Bengal tiger is Panthera tigris tigris and the Siberian tiger Panthera tigris altaica
• The tree European Elder is Sambucus nigra subsp. nigra and the American Black Elder is
Sambucus nigra subsp. canadensis
• In scholarly texts, the main entry for the binomial is followed by the abbreviated (in botany) or full
(in zoology) surname of the scientific authority – the scientist who first published the classification.
If in the original description the species was assigned to a different genus from that to which it is
assigned today, the abbreviation or name of the describer and the description date are set in
parentheses. For example: (plant) Amaranthus retroflexus L., and (animal) Passer domesticus
(Linnaeus, 1758) – the latter was described by Linnaeus as Fringilla domestica.
• When used with a common name, the scientific name often follows in parentheses, although this
varies with publication. For example: "The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is decreasing in
Europe".
• The scientific name should generally be written in full. The exception to this is when several
species from the same genus are being listed or discussed in the same paper or report, or the same
species is mentioned repeatedly; in that case the genus is written in full when it is first used, but may
then be abbreviated to an initial (and period) for successive species names; for example, a list of
members of the genus Canis might be written: "Canis lupus, C. aureus, C. simensis". In rare cases, this
abbreviated form has spread to more general use; for example, the bacterium Escherichia coli is often
referred to as just E. coli, and Tyrannosaurus rex is perhaps even better known simply as T. rex, these
two both often appearing in this form even where they are not part of any list of species of the same
genus.
• The abbreviation "sp." is used when the actual specific name cannot or need not be specified.
The abbreviation "spp." (plural) indicates "several species". These are not italicised (or underlined). For
example: "Canis sp." means "an unspecified species of the genus Canis", while "Canis spp." means
"two or more species of the genus Canis".
• Easily confused with the foregoing usage is the abbreviation "ssp." (zoology) or "subsp."
(botany), indicating an unspecified subspecies. In the same way the plurals of these are "sspp." or
"subspp."
• The abbreviation "cf." is used when the identification is not confirmed. For example "Corvus cf.
splendens" indicates "a bird similar to the House Crow but not certainly identified as this species".
• Mycology uses the same system as in botany

Trinomial nomenclature
In biology, trinomial nomenclature refers to names for taxa below the rank of species.This is different
for animals and plants:
Trinomen:.It uses for animals. There is only one rank allowed below the rank of species: subspecies.
In zoological nomenclature, a trinomen, or trinominal name, refers to the name of a subspecies.
A trinomen is a name consisting of three names: generic name, specific name and subspecific name.
All three names are typeset in italics, and only the generic name is capitalised. No indicator of rank is
included: in zoology, subspecies is the only rank below that of species.Buteo jamaicensis borealis is
one of the subspecies of the red-tailed hawk. (Buteo jamaicensis).
 If the generic and specific name have already been mentioned in the same paragraph, they are often
abbreviated to initial letters: for example one might write, "The Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax
carbo has a distinct subspecies in Australasia, the Black Shag P. c. novaehollandiae".
In a taxonomic publication, a name is incomplete without an author citation and publication details.
This indicates who published the name; in what publication; with the date of the
publication.Phalacrocorax carbo novaehollandiae Stephens, 1826

Ternary name: Uses for plants In botanical nomenclature, the ICBN prescribes a "three part name"
(ternary name) for any taxon below the rank of species. The ranks below that of species explicitly
allowed in the ICBN are
• subspecies (subspecies) - recommended abbreviation: subsp., but "ssp." is also in use
• varietas (variety) - recommended abbreviation: var.
• subvarietas (subvariety) - recommended abbreviation: subvar.
• forma (form) - recommended abbreviation: f.
• subforma (subforma) - recommended abbreviation: subf.
Such a taxon is called an infraspecific taxon. Its name consists of three parts:a genus name, a
specific epithet and an infraspecific epithet.
A connecting term should be placed before the infraspecific epithet to indicate the rank. It
is customary to italicize all three parts of a ternary name. For example:
• Acanthocalycium klimpelianum var. macranthum
• Astrophytum myriostigma subvar. glabrum Backeb.
When indicating authors, it is possible to indicate either only the final epithet's author, or both the
specific and subspecific authors after their respective epithets. Homonymy is not allowed between
subspecific epithet: two forms may not have the same name even if they belong to different varieties
or subspecies, and two ranks may not have the same name unless they also have the same holotype
Examples
• Adenia aculeata subsp. inermis de Wilde -Identifying de Wilde as the author who published
this name. Note that here it was decided not to indicate authority for the species
• Pinus nigra var. pallasiana (Lambert) Asch. & Graebn- Here, Lambert published the epithet in
a name at the rank of species (Pinus pallasiana) and the taxon was subsequently reduced to a
variety of Pinus nigra subsp. nigra.
• Pinus nigra J.F.Arnold subsp. salzmannii (Dunal) Franco- Here, J.F.Arnold is the author who
gave the species, European black pine, its botanical name; Dunal is the author who published
Pinus salzmanii being the first to use the epithet salzmannii for this taxon; Franco is the author
who reduced the taxon to a subspecies in Pinus nigra
Sometimes a listing will include more than three parts; this is not a botanical name, but a classification.
The ICBN gives the example of Saxifraga aizoon var. aizoon subvar. brevifolia f. multicaulis subf.
surculosa Engl. & Irmsch.; the ternary name would be Saxifraga aizoon subf. surculosa Engl. &
Irmsch.
Tissue classification and histology
Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. A tissue is
an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a
specific function. Organs are then formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues.
The study of tissue is known as histology or, in connection with disease, histopathology. The classical
tools for studying tissues are the paraffin block in which tissue is embedded and then sectioned, the
histological stain, and the optical microscope. In the last couple of decades, developments in electron
microscopy, immunofluorescence, and the use of frozen tissue sections have enhanced the detail that
can be observed in tissues. With these tools, the classical appearances of tissues can be examined in
health and disease, enabling considerable refinement of clinical diagnosis and prognosis.

Animal tissues
Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types: connective, muscle, nervous, and epithelial.
Multiple tissue types comprise organs and body structures. While all animals can generally be
considered to contain the four tissue types, the manifestation of these tissues can differ depending on the
type of organism. For example, the origin of the cells comprising a particular tissue type may differ
developmentally for different classifications of animals. The epithelium in all animals is derived from
the ectoderm and endoderm with a small contribution from the mesoderm which forms the
endothelium. By contrast, a true epithelial tissue is present only in a single layer of cells held together
via occluding junctions called tight junctions, to create a selectively permeable barrier. This tissue
covers all organismal surfaces that come in contact with the external environment such as the skin, the
airways, and the digestive tract. It serves functions of protection, secretion, and absorption, and is
separated from other tissues below by a basal lamina. Endothelium, which comprises the vasculature,
is a specialized type of epithelium.

Connective tissue
Connective tissues are fibrous tissues. They are made up of cells separated by non-living material, which
is called extracellular matrix. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place.
Muscle tissue
Muscle cells form the active contractile tissue of the body known as muscle tissue. Muscle tissue
functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs.
Muscle tissue is separated into three distinct categories: visceral or smooth muscle, which is found in
the inner linings of organs; skeletal muscle, in which is found attached to bone providing for gross
movement; and cardiac muscle which is found in the heart, allowing it to contract and pump blood
throughout an organism.

Nervous tissue
Cells comprising the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as neural
tissue. In the central nervous system, neural tissue forms the brain and spinal cord and, in the
peripheral nervous system forms the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, inclusive of the motor
neurons. Transmits communications.

Epithelial tissue
The epithelial tissues are formed by cells that cover organ surfaces such as the surface of the skin, the
airways, the reproductive tract, and the inner lining of the digestive tract. The cells comprising an
epithelial layer are linked via semi-permeable, tight junctions; hence, this tissue provides a barrier
between the external environment and the organ it covers. In addition to this protective function,
epithelial tissue may also be specialized to function in secretion and absorption. Epithelial tissue helps
to protect organisms from microorganisms, injury, and fluid loss.
 Plant tissues
Examples of tissue in other multicellular organisms are vascular tissue in plants, such as xylem and
phloem. Plant tissues are categorized broadly into three tissue systems: the epidermis, the ground
tissue, and the vascular tissue. Together they are often referred to as biomass.
• Epidermis - Cells forming the outer surface of the leaves and of the young plant body.
• Vascular tissue - The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem. These
transport fluid and nutrients internally.
• Ground tissue - Ground tissue is less differentiated than other tissues. Ground tissue manufactures
nutrients by photosynthesis and stores reserve nutrients.
Plant tissues can also be divided differently into two types:
1. Meristematic tissues
2. Permanent tissues
1.Meristematic tissues
Meristematic tissue consist of actively dividing cells this is found in regions such as the tips of stems or
roots and lead to increase in length and thickness of the plant this cells are spherical oval polygonal and
rectangular and have thin cells walls.The growth of plant occurs only in certain specific regions. At
these regions, the meristematic tissues are present. New cells produced by meristem are initially those
of meristem itself, but as they grow and mature, their characteristics slowly change and they become
differentiated as components of other tissues. Depending on the region of occurrence of meristimatic
tissues they are classified as:
a) Apical Meristem - It is present at the growing tips of stems and roots and increases the length of the
stem and root. They form growing parts at the apices of roots and stems and are responsible for increase
in length,also called primary growth.This meristem is responsible for the linear growth of an organ.
b) Lateral Meristem - This meristem consist of cells which mainly divide in one plane and cause the
organ to increase in diameter and growth. Lateral Meristem usually occurs beneath the bark of the tree
in the form of Cork Cambium and in vascular bundles of dicots in the form of vascular cambium. The
activity of this cambium results in the formation of secondary growth.
c) Intercalary Meristem - This meristem is located in between permanent tissues. It is usually present
at the base of node, inter node and on leaf base. They are responsible for growth in length of the
plant.This adds growth in the girth of stem.
The cells of meristematic tissues are similar in structure and have thin and elastic primary cell wall made
up of cellulose. They are compactly arranged without inter-cellular spaces between them. Each cell
contains a dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus. Dense protoplasm of meristematic cells contains
very few vacuoles. Normally the meristematic cells are oval, polygonal or rectangular in shape.
Meristemetic tissue cells have a large nucleus with small or no vacuoles, they have no inter cellular
spaces.
2.Permanent tissues
The meristematic tissues that take up a specific role lose the ability to divide. This process of taking up a
permanent shape, size and a function is called cellular differentiation. Cells of meristematic tissue
differentiate to form different types of permanent tissue. There are 2 types of permanent tissues:
a.Simple permanent tissues
These tissues are called simple because they are composed of similar types of cells which have common
origin and function. They are further classified into:

1. Parenchyma
2. Chlorenchyma
3. Aerenchyma
4. Collenchyma
5. Sclerenchyma
6. Epidermis
1.Parenchyma:Parenchyma is Greek word where "parn" means besides and "enchien" means to pour.
Parenchyma is the most specialized primitive tissue. It mainly consist of thin-walled cells which have
inter-cellular spaces between them. The cell wall is made up of cellulose. Each parenchymatous cell is
iso-diametric, spherical, or oval in shape. It is widely distributed in various plant organs like root, stem,
leaf, flowers and fruits. They mainly occur in the cortex epidermis, and pith, as well as in the mesophyll
of leaves.
The main function of parenchymatous tissue is assimilation and storage of reserve food materials like
starch, fats and proteins. They also store waste products such as gums, resins, and inorganic waste
materials.
2.Chlorenchyma:The cells of this tissue are characterized by having chloroplasts (containing
chlorophyll). It is found in the palisade and spongy tissues in the green leaves and the stem cortex of the
herbs where photosynthesis occurs.
3.Aerenchyma:Aerenchyma is a type of parenchyma. In aquatic plants the intercellular spaces form
large air cavities. They give buoyancy to the plant and help them float in water. Such parenchyma is
called aerenchyma.
4.Collenchyma:Collenchyma is Greek word where "Collen" means gum and "enchyma" means
infusion. It is a living tissue of primary body like Parenchyma. Cells are thin-walled but possess
thickening of cellulose and pectin substances at the corners where number of cells join together. This
tissue gives a tensile strength to the plant and the cells are compactly arranged and do not have inter-
cellular spaces. It occurs chiefly in hypodermis of stems and leaves. It is absent in monocots and in
roots.
Collenchymatous tissue acts as a supporting tissue in stems of young plants. It provides mechanical
support, elasticity, and tensile strength to the plant body. It helps in manufacturing sugar and storing it as
starch. It is present in margin of leaves and resist tearing effect of the wind.
5.Sclerenchyma:Sclerenchyma is Greek word where "Sclrenes" means hard and "enchyma" means
infusion. This tissue consists of thick-walled, dead cells. These cells have hard and extremely thick
secondary walls due to uniform distribution of lignin. Lignin deposition is so thick that the cell walls
become strong, rigid and impermeable to water. Sclerenchymatous cells are closely packed without
inter-cellular spaces between them. Thus, they appear as hexagonal net in transverse section. The cells
are cemented with the help of lamella. The middle lamella is a wall that lies between adjacent cells.
Sclerenchymatous cells mainly occur in hypodermis, pericycle, secondary xylem and phloem. They also
occur in endocorp of almond and coconut. It is made of pectin, lignin, protein. The cells of
sclerenchymatous cells can be classified as :
1. Fibres- Fibres are long, elongated sclerenchymatous cells with pointed ends.
2. Sclerides- Sclerenchymatous cells which are short and possess extremely thick, lamellated,
lignified walls with long singular piths. They are called sclerides.
The main function of Sclerenchymatous tissues is to give support to the plant.
6.Epidermis:The entire surface of the plant consists of a single layer of cells called epidermis or surface
tissue. The entire surface of the plant has this outer layer of epidermis. Hence it is also called surface
tissue. Most of the epidermal cells are relatively flat. the outer and lateral walls of the cell are often
thicker than the inner walls. The cells forms a continuous sheet without inter cellular spaces. It protects
all parts of the plant.
b.Complex permanent tissue
A complex permanent tissue may be classified as a group of more than one type of tissue having a
common origin and working together as a unit to perform a function. These tissues are concerned with
transportation of water, mineral, nutrients and organic substances. The important complex tissues in
vascular plants are xylem, phloem.
1.Xylem:Xylem is a chief, conducting tissue of vascular plants. It is responsible for conduction of water
and inorganic solutes.Xylem is an important plant tissue as it is part of the ‘plumbing’ of a plant. Think
of bundles of pipes running along the main axis of stems and roots. It carries water and dissolved
substances throughout and consists of a combination of parenchyma cells, fibers, vessels, tracheids and
ray cells. Long tubes made up of individual cells are the vessels, while vessel members are open at each
end. Internally, there may be bars of wall material extending across the open space. These cells are
joined end to end to form long tubes. Vessel members and tracheids are dead at maturity. Tracheids have
thick secondary cell walls and are tapered at the ends. They do not have end openings such as the
vessels. The tracheids ends overlap with each other, with pairs of pits present. The pit pairs allow water
to pass from cell to cell. While most conduction in the xylem is up and down, there is some side-to-side
or lateral conduction via rays. Rays are horizontal rows of long-living parenchyma cells that arise out of
the vascular cambium. In trees, and other woody plants, ray will radiate out from the center of stems and
roots and in cross-section will look like the spokes of a wheel.
2.Phloem:Phloem is an equally important plant tissue as it also is part of the ‘plumbing’ of a plant.
Primarily, phloem carries dissolved food substances throughout the plant. This conduction system is
composed of sieve-tube member and companion cells, that are without secondary walls. The parent cells
of the vascular cambium produce both xylem and phloem. This usually also includes fibers, parenchyma
and ray cells. Sieve tubes are formed from sieve-tube members laid end to end. The end walls, unlike
vessel members in xylem, do not have openings. The end walls, however, are full of small pores where
cytoplasm extends from cell to cell. These porous connections are called sieve plates. In spite of the fact
that their cytoplasm is actively involved in the conduction of food materials, sieve-tube members do not
have nuclei at maturity. It is the companion cells that are nestled between sieve-tube members that
function in some manner bringing about the conduction of food. Sieve-tube members that are alive
contain a polymer called callose. Callose stays in solution as long at the cell contents are under pressure.
As a repair mechanism, if an insect injures a cell and the pressure drops, the callose will precipitate.
However, the callose and a phloem protein will be moved through the nearest sieve plate where they will
form a plug. This prevents further leakage of sieve tube contents and the injury is not necessarily fatal to
overall plant turgor pressure. Phloem transports food and materials in plants in upwards and downwards
as required.
Histology
Histology (compound of the Greek words: ἱστός "tissue", and -λογία -logia) is the study of the
microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. It is performed by examining a thin
slice (section) of tissue under a light microscope or electron microscope. The ability to visualize or
differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of histological
stains. Histology is an essential tool of biology and medicine.
Histopathology, the microscopic study of diseased tissue, is an important tool in anatomical
pathology, since accurate diagnosis of cancer and other diseases usually requires histopathological
examination of samples. Trained medical doctors, frequently board-certified as pathologists, are the
personnel who perform histopathological examination and provide diagnostic information based on their
observations.
The trained scientists who perform the preparation of histological sections are histotechnicians, histology
technicians (HT), histology technologists (HTL), medical scientists, medical laboratory technicians, or
biomedical scientists. Their field of study is called histotechnology.
Histology
1.Chemical fixation with formaldehyde or other chemicals
Chemical fixatives are used to preserve tissue from degradation, and to maintain the structure of the cell
and of sub-cellular components such as cell organelles (e.g., nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria). The most common fixative for light microscopy is 10% neutral buffered formalin (4%
formaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline). For electron microscopy, the most commonly used
fixative is glutaraldehyde, usually as a 2.5% solution in phosphate buffered saline. These fixatives
preserve tissues or cells mainly by irreversibly cross-linking proteins. The main action of these aldehyde
fixatives is to cross-link amino groups in proteins through the formation of CH2 (methylene) linkage, in
the case of formaldehyde, or by a C5H10 cross-links in the case of glutaraldehyde. This process, while
preserving the structural integrity of the cells and tissue can damage the biological functionality of
proteins, particularly enzymes, and can also denature them to a certain extent. This can be detrimental
to certain histological techniques. Further fixatives are often used for electron microscopy such as
osmium tetroxide or uranyl acetateFormalin fixation leads to degradation of mRNA, miRNA and
DNA in tissues. However, extraction, amplification and analysis of these nucleic acids from formalin-
fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues is possible using apropriate protocols.
2.Frozen section fixation
Frozen section is a rapid way to fix and mount histology sections. It is used in surgical removal of
tumors, and allow rapid determination of margin (that the tumor has been completely removed). It is
done using a refrigeration device called a cryostat. The frozen tissue is sliced using a microtome, and
the frozen slices are mounted on a glass slide and stained the same way as other methods. It is a
necessary way to fix tissue for certain stain such as antibody linked immunofluorescence staining. It
can also be used to determine if a tumour is malignant when it is found incidentally during surgery on a
patient.
3.Processing - dehydration, clearing, and infiltration
The aim of Tissue Processing is to remove water from tissues and replace with a medium that solidifies
to allow thin sections to be cut. Biological tissue must be supported in a hard matrix to allow sufficiently
thin sections to be cut, typically 5 μm (micrometres; 1000 micrometres = 1 mm) thick for light
microscopy and 80-100 nm (nanometre; 1,000,000 nanometres = 1 mm) thick for electron microscopy.
For light microscopy, paraffin wax is most frequently used. Since it is immiscible with water, the main
constituent of biological tissue, water must first be removed in the process of dehydration. Samples are
transferred through baths of progressively more concentrated ethanol to remove the water. This is
followed by a hydrophobic clearing agent (such as xylene) to remove the alcohol, and finally molten
paraffin wax, the infiltration agent, which replaces the xylene. Paraffin wax does not provide a
sufficiently hard matrix for cutting very thin sections for electron microscopy. Instead, resins are used.
Epoxy resins are the most commonly employed embedding media, but acrylic resins are also used,
particularly where immunohistochemistry is required. Thicker sections (0.35μm to 5μm) of resin-
embedded tissue can also be cut for light microscopy. Again, the immiscibility of most epoxy and
acrylic resins with water necessitates the use of dehydration, usually with ethanol.
4.Embedding
After the tissues have been dehydrated, cleared, and infiltrated with the embedding material, they are
ready for external embedding. During this process the tissue samples are placed into molds along with
liquid embedding material (such as agar, gelatine, or wax) which is then hardened. This is achieved by
cooling in the case of paraffin wax and heating (curing) in the case of the epoxy resins. The acrylic
resins are polymerised by heat, ultraviolet light, or chemical catalysts. The hardened blocks containing
the tissue samples are then ready to be sectioned.
Because Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues may be stored indefinitely at room
temperature, and nucleic acids (both DNA and RNA) may be recovered from them decades after
fixation, FFPE tissues are an important resource for historical studies in medicine.
Embedding can also be accomplished using frozen, non-fixed tissue in a water-based medium. Pre-
frozen tissues are placed into molds with the liquid embedding material, usually a water-based glycol,
OCT, TBS, Cryogel, or resin, which is then frozen to form hardened blocks.
5.Sectioning
Sectioning can be done in limited ways. Vertical sectioning perpendicular to the surface of the tissue is the
usual method. Horizontal sectioning is often done in the evaluation of the hair follicles and pilosebaceous units.
Tangential to horizontal sectioning is done in Mohs surgery and in methods of CCPDMA.
For light microscopy, a steel knife mounted in a microtome is used to cut 10-micrometer-thick tissue sections
which are mounted on a glass microscope slide. For transmission electron microscopy, a diamond knife
mounted in an ultramicrotome is used to cut 50-nanometer-thick tissue sections which are mounted on a 3-
millimeter-diameter copper grid. Then the mounted sections are treated with the appropriate stain.
Frozen tissue embedded in a freezing medium is cut on a microtome in a cooled machine called a cryostat.

6.Staining
 Common laboratory stains
Red blood Collagen
Stain Common use Nucleus Cytoplasm Specifically stains
cell (RBC) fibers
Nucleic acids—blue
General staining
Haematoxylin when paired with Blue N/A N/A N/A
eosin (i.e. H&E) ER (endoplasmic reticulum)—
blue
General staining Elastic fibers—pink
when paired with
Eosin N/A Pink Orange/red Pink
haematoxylin (i.e. Collagen fibers—pink
H&E) Reticular fibers—pink
Toluidine blue General staining Blue Blue Blue Blue Mast cells granules—purple
Cartilage—blue/green
Masson's
Connective tissue Black Red/pink Red Blue/green
trichrome stain
Muscle fibers—red
Keratin—orange
Mallory's
Connective tissue Red Pale red Orange Deep blue Cartilage—blue Bone matrix
trichrome stain
—deep blue Muscle fibers—
red
Weigert's elastic
Elastic fibers Blue/black N/A N/A N/A Elastic fibers—blue/black
stain
Muscle fibers—red
Heidenhain's Distinguishing cells
AZAN trichrome from extracellular Red/purple Pink Red Blue
stain components Cartilage—blue Bone matrix
—blue
Reticular fibers—brown/black
Reticular fibers,
Silver stain N/A N/A N/A N/A
nerve fibers, fungi
Nerve fibers—brown/black
Neutrophil granules—
purple/pink

Wright's stain Blood cells Bluish/purple Bluish/gray Red/pink N/A Eosinophil granules—bright
red/orange Basophil granules
—deep purple/violet Platelet
granules—red/purple

Elastic fibres—dark brown

Deep blue [or
Orcein stain Elastic fibres N/A Bright red Pink
crazy red] Mast cells granules—purple
Smooth muscle—light blue

Periodic acid- Basement membrane,

Glycogen and other
Schiff stain localizing Blue N/A N/A Pink
carbohydrates—magenta
(PAS) carbohydrates

In the 19th century, histology was an academic discipline in its own right. The 1906 Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine was awarded to histologists Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramon y Cajal. They
had dueling interpretations of the neural structure of the brain based in differing interpretations of the
same images. Cajal won the prize for his correct theory and Golgi for the staining technique he
invented to make it possible

Nutrition
Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision, to cells and organisms, of the materials
necessary (in the form of food) to support life. Many common health problems can be prevented or
alleviated with a healthy diet.
Nutrition science investigates the metabolic and physiological responses of the body to diet. With
advances in the fields of molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetics, the study of nutrition is
increasingly concerned with metabolism and metabolic pathways: the sequences of biochemical steps
through which substances in living things change from one form to another.
Nitrogen is needed by animals to build proteins. Carnivore and herbivore diets vary in their source of
nitrogen, which is a limiting nutrient for both. Herbivores consume plants to get nitrogen and carnivores
consume other animals to obtain nitrogen. Nitrogen is a common element in the atmosphere but exists in
a state that is not usable by most living organisms. Certain fungi and bacteria are able to convert
atmospheric nitrogen into a form plants can absorb and utilize.
The human body contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and
fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These
compounds in turn consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All of these chemical compounds and elements
occur in various forms and combinations (e.g. hormones, vitamins, phospholipids, hydroxyapatite),
both in the human body and in the plant and animal organisms that humans eat.
The human body consists of elements and compounds ingested, digested, absorbed, and circulated through
the bloodstream to feed the cells of the body. Except in the unborn fetus, which receive processed
nutrients from the mother, the digestive system is the first system involved in breaking down food prior to
further digestion. Digestive juices, excreted into the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract, break chemical
bonds in ingested molecules, and modulate their conformations and energy states. Though some
molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream unchanged, digestive processes release them from the matrix
of foods. Unabsorbed matter, along with some waste products of metabolism, is eliminated from the body
in the feces.
Studies of nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as
well as the chemical composition of the whole diet and of all material excreted and eliminated from the
body (in urine and feces). Comparing the food to the waste can help determine the specific compounds
and elements absorbed and metabolized in the body. The effects of nutrients may only be discernible over
an extended period, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of variables involved
in such experiments is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains
why the science of human nutrition is still slowly evolving.
In general, eating a wide variety of fresh, whole (unprocessed), foods has proven favorable for one's health
compared to monotonous diets based on processed foods.

Nutrients
There are six major classes of nutrients:
1. carbohydrates
2. dietary fiber
3. fats
4. minerals
5. protein
6. vitamins
7. water.
These nutrient classes can be categorized as either macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts) or
micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients include carbohydrates, fats, protein,
and water. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.

1.Carbohydrates : Carbohydrates include sugars, starches and fiber. They constitute a large part of foods
such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products. Carbohydrates may be classified
chemically as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer
 (saccharide or sugar) units they contain. Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides contain
one, two, and three or more sugar units, respectively.
Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they consist of long, sometimes
branched chains of single sugar units. Mono- and disaccharides are called simple carbohydrates. Dietary
advice frequently but erroneously suggests that complex carbohydrates are superior to simple because
they take longer to digest and absorb. Simple carbohydrates, on the other hand, are said to cause a spike
in blood glucose levels rapidly after ingestion. These claims are false.
a.Monosaccharides:Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be hydrolyzed
to smaller carbohydrates. They are aldehydes or ketones with two or more hydroxyl groups. The general
chemical formula of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C•H2O)n, literally a "carbon hydrate."
Monosaccharides are important fuel molecules as well as building blocks for nucleic acids. The smallest
monosaccharides, for which n = 3, are dihydroxyacetone and D- and L-glyceraldehyde.
Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: the placement of its carbonyl
group, the number of carbon atoms it contains, and its chiral handedness. If the carbonyl group is an
aldehyde, the monosaccharide is an aldose; if the carbonyl group is a ketone, the monosaccharide is a
ketose. Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are called trioses, those with four are called tetroses,
five are called pentoses, six are hexoses, and so on. These two systems of classification are often
combined. For example, glucose is an aldohexose (a six-carbon aldehyde), ribose is an aldopentose (a
five-carbon aldehyde), and fructose is a ketohexose (a six-carbon ketone).
Use in living organisms
Monosaccharides are the major source of fuel for metabolism, being used both as an energy source
(glucose being the most important in nature) and in biosynthesis. When monosaccharides are not
immediately needed by many cells they are often converted to more space efficient forms, often
polysaccharides. In many animals, including humans, this storage form is glycogen, especially in liver
and muscle cells. In plants, starch is used for the same purpose.
b.Disaccharide
Two joined monosaccharides are called a disaccharide and these are the simplest polysaccharides.
Examples include sucrose and lactose. They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together
by a covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the
loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other. The formula
of unmodified disaccharides is C12H22O11. Although there are numerous kinds of disaccharides, a handful
of disaccharides are particularly notable.
Sucrose, pictured to the right, is the most abundant disaccharide, and the main form in which
carbohydrates are transported in plants. It is composed of one D-glucose molecule and one D-fructose
molecule. The systematic name for sucrose, O-α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-D-fructofuranoside, indicates
four things:
• Its monosaccharides: glucose and fructose
• Their ring types: glucose is a pyranose, and fructose is a furanose
• How they are linked together: the oxygen on carbon number 1 (C1) of α-D-glucose is linked to the C2
of D-fructose.
• The -oside suffix indicates that the anomeric carbon of both monosaccharides participates in the
glycosidic bond.
Lactose, a disaccharide composed of one D-galactose molecule and one D-glucose molecule, occurs
naturally in mammalian milk. The systematic name for lactose is O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-
glucopyranose. Other notable disaccharides include maltose (two D-glucoses linked α-1,4) and
cellulobiose (two D-glucoses linked β-1,4). disaccharides can be classified into two types.They are
reducing and non-reducing disaccahrides if the functional group is present in bonding with another sugar
unit it is called as reducing disaccharide.

3.Oligosaccharide and Polysaccharide

Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are composed of longer chains of monosaccharide units bound
together by glycosidic bonds. The distinction between the two is based upon the number of
monosaccharide units present in the chain. Oligosaccharides typically contain between three and ten
monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides contain greater than ten monosaccharide units. Definitions of
how large a carbohydrate must be to fall into each category vary according to personal opinion. Examples
of oligosaccharides include the disaccharides mentioned above, the trisaccharide raffinose and the
tetrasaccharide stachyose.
Oligosaccharides are found as a common form of protein posttranslational modification. Such
posttranslational modifications include the Lewis and ABO oligosaccharides responsible for blood group
classifications and so of tissue incompatibilities, the alpha-Gal epitope responsible for hyperacute
rejection in xenotransplantation, and O-GlcNAc modifications.
Polysaccharides represent an important class of biological polymers. Their function in living organisms
is usually either structure- or storage-related. Starch (a polymer of glucose) is used as a storage
polysaccharide in plants, being found in the form of both amylose and the branched amylopectin. In
animals, the structurally similar glucose polymer is the more densely branched glycogen, sometimes
called 'animal starch'. Glycogen's properties allow it to be metabolized more quickly, which suits the
active lives of moving animals.
Cellulose and chitin are examples of structural polysaccharides. Cellulose is used in the cell walls of
plants and other organisms, and is claimed to be the most abundant organic molecule on earth. It has many
uses such as a significant role in the paper and textile industries, and is used as a feedstock for the
production of rayon (via the viscose process), cellulose acetate, celluloid, and nitrocellulose. Chitin has a
similar structure, but has nitrogen-containing side branches, increasing its strength. It is found in
arthropod exoskeletons and in the cell walls of some fungi. It also has multiple uses, including surgical
threads.
Other polysaccharides include callose or laminarin, chrysolaminarin, xylan, arabinoxylan, mannan,
fucoidan and galactomannan.

2.Dietary fiber
Dietary fiber or Dietary fibre or sometimes roughage is the indigestible portion of plant foods having
two main components:
• soluble (prebiotic, viscous) fiber that is readily fermented in the colon into gases and
physiologically active byproducts, and
• insoluble fiber that is metabolically inert, absorbing water throughout the digestive system and
easing defecation
It acts by changing the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, and by changing how other
nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Soluble fiber absorbs water to become a gelatinous, viscous
substance and is fermented by bacteria in the digestive tract. Insoluble fiber has bulking action and is
not fermented, although a major dietary insoluble fiber source, lignin, may alter the fate and metabolism
of soluble fibers.
Chemically, dietary fiber consists of non-starch polysaccharides such as arabinoxylans, cellulose and
many other plant components such as resistant dextrins, inulin, lignin, waxes, chitins, pectins, beta-
glucans and oligosaccharides
Food sources of dietary fiber are often divided according to whether they provide (predominantly)
soluble or insoluble fiber. Plant foods contain both types of fiber in varying degrees, according to the
plant's characteristics.
Advantages of consuming fiber are the production of salubrious compounds during the fermentation of
soluble fiber, and insoluble fiber's ability (via its passive hygroscopic properties) to increase bulk,
soften stool and shorten transit time through the intestinal tract.

Sources of fiber
 Dietary fiber is found in plants. While all plants contain some fiber, plants with high fiber concentrations
are generally the most practical source
Fiber-rich plants can be eaten directly. Or, alternatively, they can be used to make supplements and
fiber-rich processed foods
Some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. For example plums (or prunes)
have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp. The plum's skin is an example of an insoluble fiber source,
whereas soluble fiber sources are inside the pulp.
Soluble fiber is found in varying quantities in all plant foods, including:
• legumes (peas, soybeans, lupins and other beans)
• oats, rye, chia, and barley
• some fruits and fruit juices (including prune juice, plums, berries, bananas,
and the insides of apples and pears)
• certain vegetables such as broccoli, carrots, and Jerusalem artichokes
• root tubers and root vegetables such as sweet potatoes and onions (skins of
these are sources of insoluble fiber)
• psyllium seed husk (a mucilage soluble fiber).
Sources of insoluble fiber include:
• whole grain foods
• wheat and corn bran
• nuts and seeds
• potato skins
• flax seed
• lignans
• vegetables such as green beans, cauliflower, zucchini (courgette), celery, and nopal
• some fruits including avocado, and bananas
• the skins of some fruits, including tomatoes
Fiber supplements
These are a few example forms of fiber that have been sold as supplements or food additives. These may be
marketed to consumers for nutritional purposes, treatment of various gastrointestinal disorders, and for such
possible health benefits as lowering cholesterol levels, reducing risk of colon cancer, and losing weight.
Soluble fiber supplements may be beneficial for alleviating symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, such as
diarrhea and/or constipation and abdominal discomfort. Prebiotic soluble fiber products, like those containing
inulin or oligosaccharides, may contribute to relief from inflammatory bowel disease, as in Crohn's disease,
ulcerative colitis, and Clostridium difficile, due in part to the short-chain fatty acids produced with subsequent
anti-inflammatory actions upon the bowel. Fiber supplements may be effective in an overall dietary plan for
managing irritable bowel syndrome by modification of food choices
• Inulin
Chemically defined as oligosaccharides occurring naturally in most plants, inulins have nutritional value as
carbohydrates, or more specifically as fructans, a polymer of the natural plant sugar, fructose. Inulin is
typically extracted by manufacturers from enriched plant sources such as chicory roots or Jerusalem artichokes
for use in prepared foods. Subtly sweet, it can be used to replace sugar, fat, and flour, is often used to improve the
flow and mixing qualities of powdered nutritional supplements, and has significant potential health value as a
prebiotic fermentable fiber
Inulin is advantageous because it contains 25–30% the food energy of sugar or other carbohydrates and
10–15% the food energy of fat. As a prebiotic fermentable fiber, its metabolism by gut flora yields short-
chain fatty acids (discussed above) which increase absorption of calcium magnesium, and iron, resulting
from upregulation of mineral-transporting genes and their membrane transport proteins within the colon
wall. Among other potential beneficial effects noted above, inulin promotes an increase in the mass and
health of intestinal Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium populations.
• Vegetable gums
Vegetable gum fiber supplements are relatively new to the market. Often sold as a powder, vegetable gum fibers
dissolve easily with no aftertaste. In preliminary clinical trials, they have proven effective for the treatment of
irritable bowel syndrome. Examples of vegetable gum fibers are guar gum and acacia senegal gum.
3.Fats
Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely
insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are generally triesters of glycerol and fatty acids. Fats may be either
solid or liquid at room temperature, depending on their structure and composition. Although the words
"oils", "fats", and "lipids" are all used to refer to fats, "oils" is usually used to refer to fats that are liquids
at normal room temperature, while "fats" is usually used to refer to fats that are solids at normal room
temperature. "Lipids" is used to refer to both liquid and solid fats, along with other related substances. The
word "oil" is also used for any substance that does not mix with water and has a greasy feel, such as
petroleum (or crude oil), heating oil, and essential oils, regardless of its chemical structure.
Fats form a category of lipid, distinguished from other lipids by their chemical structure and physical
properties. This category of molecules is important for many forms of life, serving both structural and
metabolic functions. They are an important part of the diet of most heterotrophs (including humans). Fats
or lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas.
Examples of edible animal fats are lard, fish oil, and butter or ghee. They are obtained from fats in the
milk and meat, as well as from under the skin, of an animal. Examples of edible plant fats include peanut,
soya bean, sunflower, sesame, coconut, olive, and vegetable oils. Margarine and vegetable shortening,
which can be derived from the above oils, are used mainly for baking. These examples of fats can be
categorized into saturated fats and unsaturated fats.
Chemical structure
There are many different kinds of fats, but each is a variation on the same chemical structure. All fats
consist of fatty acids (chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms, with a carboxylic acid group at one end)
bonded to a backbone structure, often glycerol (a "backbone" of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen).
Chemically, this is a triester of glycerol, an ester being the molecule formed from the reaction of the
carboxylic acid and an organic alcohol. As a simple visual illustration, if the kinks and angles of these
chains were straightened out, the molecule would have the shape of a capital letter E. The fatty acids would
each be a horizontal line; the glycerol "backbone" would be the vertical line that joins the horizontal lines.
Fats therefore have "ester" bonds.
The properties of any specific fat molecule depend on the particular fatty acids that constitute it. Different
fatty acids are composed of different numbers of carbon and hydrogen atoms. The carbon atoms, each
bonded to two neighboring carbon atoms, form a zigzagging chain; the more carbon atoms there are in any
fatty acid, the longer its chain will be. Fatty acids with long chains are more susceptible to intermolecular
forces of attraction (in this case, van der Waals forces), raising its melting point. Long chains also yield
more energy per molecule when metabolized.
Saturated and unsaturated
Each carbon atom is typically bonded to two hydrogen atoms. When a fatty acid has this typical arrangement,
it is called "saturated", because the carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen; meaning they are bonded to
as many hydrogens as possible. In other fats, a carbon atom may instead bond to only one other hydrogen
atom, and have a double bond to a neighboring carbon atom. This results in an "unsaturated" fatty acid. More
specifically, it would be a monounsaturated fatty acid, whereas, a polyunsaturated fatty acid would be a
fatty acid with more than one double bond. Saturated and unsaturated fats differ in their energy content and
melting point. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can freeze easily
and are typically solid at room temperature. But the rigid double bond in an unsaturated fat fundamentally
changes the chemistry of the fat.
Trans fatty acids
There are two ways the double bond may be arranged: the isomer with both parts of the chain on the same side of the
double bond (the cis-isomer), or the isomer with the parts of the chain on opposite sides of the double bond (the trans-
isomer). Most trans-isomer fats (commonly called trans fats) are commercially produced rather than naturally
occurring. The cis-isomer introduces a kink into the molecule that prevents the fats from stacking efficiently as in the
case of fats with saturated chains. This decreases intermolecular forces between the fat molecules, making it more
difficult for unsaturated cis-fats to freeze; they are typically liquid at room temperature. Trans fats may still stack like
saturated fats, and are not as susceptible to metabolization as other fats.
Trans fats may significantly increase the risk of coronary heart disease.
Importance for living organisms
Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in
conjunction with fats. Fats are also sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement.
Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock,
maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function.
Fats also serve as energy stores for the body, containing about 37.8 kilojoules (9 Calories) per gram of
fatThey are broken down in the body to release glycerol and free fatty acids. The glycerol can be converted
to glucose by the liver and thus used as a source of energy.
Fat also serves as a useful buffer towards a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical
or biotic—reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain
equilibrium of—the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue. This helps to protect vital organs,
until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized and/or removed from the body by such
means as excretion, urination, accidental or intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth.
While it is nearly impossible to remove fat completely from the diet, it would be unhealthy to do so. Some
fatty acids are essential nutrients, meaning that they can't be produced in the body from other compounds
and need to be consumed in small amounts. All other fats required by the body are non-essential and can be
produced in the body from other compounds.
Adipose tissue
In animals, adipose, or fatty tissue is the body's means of storing metabolic energy over extended periods of
time. Depending on current physiological conditions, adipocytes store fat derived from the diet and liver
metabolism or degrade stored fat to supply fatty acids and glycerol to the circulation. These metabolic
activities are regulated by several hormones (i.e., insulin, glucagon and epinephrine). The location of the
tissue determines its metabolic profile: "Visceral fat" is located within the abdominal wall (i.e., beneath the
wall of abdominal muscle) whereas "subcutaneous fat" is located beneath the skin (and includes fat that is
located in the abdominal area beneath the skin but above the abdominal muscle wall).

4.Dietary minerals

Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen present in common organic molecules. The term "mineral" is
archaic, since the intent of the definition is to describe chemical elements, not chemical compounds or
actual minerals. Examples include calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, zinc, and iodine.
Dietitians may recommend that dietary elements are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with
the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in
dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juice fortified with calcium; iodized salt, salt fortified with
iodine). Dietary supplements can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as
compounds), a combination of vitamins and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a
compound or mixture of compounds), such as calcium (as carbonate, citrate, etc.) or magnesium (as
oxide, etc.), chromium (usually as picolinate).
The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of
metabolism with the required elemental components. Appropriate intake levels of certain chemical
elements have been demonstrated to be required to maintain optimal health. Diet can meet all the body's
chemical element requirements, although supplements can be used when some requirements (e.g.,
calcium, which is found mainly in dairy products) are not adequately met by the diet, or when chronic or
acute deficiencies arise from pathology, injury, etc.
Essential chemical elements
Some sources state that sixteen chemical elements are required to support human biochemical processes by
serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytesMost of the dietary elements are of relatively
low atomic weight:
Periodic table highlighting dietary elements

H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg

* Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
** Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
The four organic basic Quantity Essential trace Pervasive but no identified biological
elements elements elements function in humans

Other elements

Many elements have been suggested as essential, but such claims have usually not been confirmed.
Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a biomolecule containing the element
with an identifiable and testable function. One problem with identifying efficacy is that some elements are
innocuous at low concentrations and are pervasive, so proof of efficacy is lacking because deficiencies are
difficult to reproduce

Element Description Excess

Relatively large quantities of sulfur are required, but there is no RDA, as the (primarily
Sulfur sulfur is obtained from and used for amino acids, and therefore should be associated with
adequate in any diet containing enough protein. compounds)
Cobalt is required in the synthesis of vitamin B12, but because bacteria are
Cobalt required to synthesize the vitamin, it is usually considered part of vitamin B12 Cobalt poisoning
deficiency rather than its own dietary element deficiency.
There have been occasional studies asserting the essentiality of nickel but it
Nickel Nickel toxicity
currently has no known RDA.
Chromium is sometimes described as essential. It is implicated in sugar
metabolism in humans, leading to a market for the supplement chromium
Chromium Chromium toxicity
picolinate, but definitive biochemical evidence for a physiological function is
lacking.
Fluorine (as fluoride) has been described as conditionally essential, depending
Fluorine Fluoride poisoning
upon the importance placed upon the prevention of chronic disease.
Boron has been found to be essential for the utilization of vitamin D and
Boron
calcium in the body
Arsenic, bromine, cadmium, silicon, tungsten, and vanadium have
established, albeit specialized, biochemical roles as structural or functional
Other Multiple
cofactors in other organisms. These elements appear not to be utilized by
humans

The following play important roles in biological processes:

 Dietary
RDA/AI Description Category Insufficiency Excess
element

is a systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating

Potassium 4700 mg Quantity ATP with sodium. Dietary sources include legumes, hypokalemia hyperkalemia
potato skin, tomatoes, and bananas.

is needed for production of hydrochloric acid in the

Chlorine 2300 mg Quantity stomach and in cellular pump functions. Table salt hypochloremia hyperchloremia
(sodium chloride) is the main dietary source.

is a systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating

ATP with potassium. Dietary sources include table salt
Sodium 1500 mg Quantity hyponatremia hypernatremia
(sodium chloride, the main source), sea vegetables,
milk, and spinach.

is needed for muscle, heart and digestive system health,

builds bone, supports synthesis and function of blood
Calcium 1000 mg Quantity cells. Dietary sources of calcium include dairy hypocalcaemia hypercalcaemia
products, canned fish with bones (salmon, sardines),
green leafy vegetables, nuts and seeds.

is a component of bones (see apatite), cells, in energy

Phosphorus 700 mg Quantity processing and many other functions. In biological hypophosphatemia hyperphosphatemia
contexts, usually seen as phosphate.

hypomagnesemia,
is required for processing ATP and for bones. Dietary
Magnesium 420 mg Quantity magnesium hypermagnesemia
sources include nuts, soy beans, and cocoa mass.
deficiency
is pervasive and required for several enzymes such as
Zinc 11 mg Trace carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, and zinc deficiency zinc toxicity
carbonic anhydrase.

is required for many proteins and enzymes, notably

hemoglobin to prevent anemia. Dietary sources include
iron overload
Iron 8 mg Trace red meat, leafy green vegetables, fish (tuna, salmon), anaemia
disorder
eggs, dried fruits, beans, whole grains, and enriched
grains.

manganese
Manganese 2.3 mg Trace is a cofactor in enzyme functions. manganism
deficiency
is required component of many redox enzymes,
Copper 900 µg Trace copper deficiency copper toxicity
including cytochrome c oxidase.
is required not only for the synthesis of thyroid
hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine and to
prevent goiter, but also, probably as an antioxidant, for
Iodine 150 µg Trace iodine deficiency iodism
extrathyroidal organs as mammary and salivary glands
and for gastric mucosa and immune system (thymus):

a cofactor essential to activity of antioxidant enzymes

Selenium 55 µg Trace selenium deficiency selenosis
like glutathione peroxidase.

the oxidases xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and

Molybdenum 45 µg Trace
sulfite oxidase

5.Protein
Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Amino acids can
be divided into either essential amino acids or non-essential amino acids. Proteins and carbohydrates
contain 4 kcal per gram as opposed to lipids which contain 9 kcal per gram. The liver, and to a much
lesser extent the kidneys, can convert amino acids used by cells in protein biosynthesis into glucose by a
process known as gluconeogenesis.
The essential amino acids, which must be obtained from food sources, are leucine, isoleucine, valine,
lysine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, phenylalanine and histidine. On the other hand, non-
essential amino acids can be made by the body from other amino acids. The non-essential amino acids
are arginine, alanine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamine, glutamic acid, glycine, proline,
serine, and tyrosine.
In nutrition, proteins are broken down in the stomach during digestion by enzymes known as
proteases into smaller polypeptides to provide amino acids for the body, including the essential amino
acids that the organism cannot be biosynthesized by the body itself. Thus, protein from one's diet
should provide both essential and non-essential amino acids for protein synthesis.
Most animal sources and certain vegetable sources have the complete complement of all the essential
amino acids in adequate proportions. However, it is not necessary to consume a single food source that
contains all the essential amino acids, as long as all the essential amino acids are eventually present in
the diet: see "Complete protein" and "Protein combining".
Protein Functions in Body
Protein is a nutrient needed by the human body for growth and maintenance. Aside from water, protein
is the most abundant molecule in the body. Protein is found in all cells of the body and is the major
structural component of all cells in the body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and
skin. Proteins also are utilized in membranes, such as glycoproteins. When broken down into amino
acids, they are used as precursors to nucleic acid and vitamins. Hormones and enzymes are also formed
from amino acids in which they help regulate metabolism, support the immune system and other body
functions. Finally, protein is needed to form blood cells.
Proteins is one of the key nutrients for success in terms of sports. They play a major role in the response
to exercise. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are used for building new tissue including
muscle, as well as repairing damaged tissues. Proteins, however, only provide a small source of fuel for
the exercising muscles when carbohydrates and lipid resources are low. Proteins is one of the key
nutrients for success in terms of sports. They play a major role in the response to exercise. Amino acids,
the building blocks of proteins, are used for building new tissue including muscle, as well as repairing
damaged tissues. Proteins, however, only provide a small source of fuel for the exercising muscles
when carbohydrates and lipid resources are low. [
Sources
There are many different sources of protein ranging from whole protein foods (such as milk, meat, fish,
egg, and vegetables) to a variety of protein powders (such as casein, whey, soy). Protein powders are
processed and manufactured sources of protein. Protein powders may provide an additional source of
protein for exercising muscles. The type of protein is important in terms of its influence on protein
metabolic response and possibly on the muscle's exercise performance. The different physical and/or
chemical properties within the various types of protein may affect the rate of protein digestion. As a result,
the amino acid availability and the accumulation of tissue protein is altered because of the various protein
metabolic responses.
Digestion
Digestion typically begins in the stomach when pepsinogen is converted to pepsin by the action of
hydrochloric acid, and continued by trypsin and chymotrypsin in the intestine. The amino acids and
their derivatives into which dietary protein is degraded are then absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract.
The absorption rates of individual amino acids are highly dependent on the protein source; for example,
the digestibilities of many amino acids in humans differ between soy and milk proteins and between
individual milk proteins, beta-lactoglobulin and casein. For milk proteins, about 50% of the ingested
protein is absorbed between the stomach and the jejunum and 90% is absorbed by the time the digested
food reaches the ileum. Biological value (BV) is a measure of the proportion of absorbed protein from
a food which becomes incorporated into the proteins of the organism's body.
Food Allergies
Specific proteins found in certain food items are often the cause of allergies and allergic reactions.
This is because the structure of each form of protein is slightly different; some may trigger a response
from the immune system while others remain harmless. Many people are allergic to casein, the protein
in milk; gluten, the protein in wheat and other grains; the particular proteins found in peanuts; or
those in shellfish or other seafoods. Food allergies should not be confused with food intolerance.
Deficiency in Developing Countries
Protein deficiency is a serious cause of ill health and death in developing countries. Protein deficiency
plays a part in the disease kwashiorkor. War, famine, overpopulation and other factors can increase
rates of malnutrition and protein deficiency. Protein deficiency can lead to reduced intelligence or
mental retardation
In countries that suffer from widespread protein deficiency, food is generally full of plant fibers, which
makes adequate energy and protein consumption very difficult. Protein deficiency is generally caused by
lack of total food energy, making it an issue of not getting food in total. Symptoms of kwashiorkor
include apathy, diarrhea, inactivity, failure to grow, flaky skin, fatty liver, and edema of the belly and
legs. This edema is explained by the normal functioning of proteins in fluid balance and lipoprotein
transport.
Moringa trees are known to overcome protein deficiency in developing countries as the leaves and other
parts of the tree contain comparably to soy bean high amount of crude proteins and amino acids.
Dr. Latham, director of the Program in International Nutrition at Cornell University claims that
malnutrition is a frequent cause of death and disease in third world countries. Protein-energy
malnutrition (PEM) affects 500 million people and kills 10 million annually. In severe cases white
blood cell numbers decline and the ability of leukocytes to fight infection decreases

6. vitamin
A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. In other
words, an organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when it cannot
be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the
term is conditional both on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For example, ascorbic
acid (vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animals, and biotin and vitamin D are
required in the human diet only in certain circumstances. By convention, the term vitamin does not
include other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino
acids (which are needed in larger amounts than vitamins), nor does it encompass the large number of
other nutrients that promote health but are otherwise required less oftenThirteen vitamins are presently
universally recognized.
Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each
"vitamin" refers to a number of vitamer compounds that all show the biological activity associated with
a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin "generic
descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A", which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known
carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the body, and
are sometimes inter-convertible to one another, as well.
Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral
metabolism (e.g., vitamin D), or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (e.g., some forms
of vitamin A). Others function as antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E and sometimes vitamin C). The largest
number of vitamins (e.g., B complex vitamins) function as precursors for enzyme cofactors, that help
enzymes in their work as catalysts in metabolism. In this role, vitamins may be tightly bound to enzymes
as part of prosthetic groups: For example, biotin is part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids.
Vitamins may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, detachable molecules that
function to carry chemical groups or electrons between molecules. For example, folic acid carries various
forms of carbon group – methyl, formyl, and methylene – in the cell. Although these roles in assisting
enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins' best-known function, the other vitamin functions are equally
important.
The term vitamin was derived from "vitamine," a combination word made up by Polish scientist Casimir
Funk from vital and amine, meaning amine of life, because it was suggested in 1912 that the organic
micronutrient food factors that prevent beriberi and perhaps other similar dietary-deficiency diseases
might be chemical amines. This proved incorrect for the micronutrient class, and the word was shortened
to vitamin.
The discovery dates of the vitamins and their sources

The discovery dates of the vitamins and their sources

Year of discovery Vitamin Food source
1913 Vitamin A (Retinol) Cod liver oil
1910 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Rice bran
1920 Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus, most fresh foods
1920 Vitamin D (Calciferol) Cod liver oil
1920 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Meat, eggs
1922 Vitamin E (Tocopherol) Wheat germ oil, unrefined vegetable oils
1926 Vitamin B12 (Cobalamins) Liver, eggs, animal products
1929 Vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone) Leafy green vegetables
Meat, whole grains,
1931 Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)
in many foods
1931 Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Meat, dairy products, eggs
1934 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Meat, dairy products
1936 Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Meat, eggs, grains
1941 Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) Leafy green vegetables

• The ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver to a patient would help cure night blindness, an illness now
known to be caused by a vitamin A deficiency. The advancement of ocean voyage during the Renaissance
resulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables, and made illnesses from vitamin
deficiency common among ships' crews
• In 1749, the Scottish surgeon James Lind discovered that citrus foods helped prevent scurvy, a particularly
deadly disease in which collagen is not properly formed, causing poor wound healing, bleeding of the gums,
severe pain, and death. In 1753, Lind published his Treatise on the Scurvy, which recommended using lemons
and limes to avoid scurvy, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy
• Christiaan Eijkman, who in 1897 discovered that feeding unpolished rice instead of the polished variety to
chickens helped to prevent beriberi in the chickens. The following year, Frederick Hopkins postulated that
some foods contained "accessory factors" — in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats, et cetera — that are
necessary for the functions of the human body. Hopkins and Eijkman were awarded the Nobel Prize for
Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for their discovery of several vitamin
• In 1910, the first vitamin complex was isolated by Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki, who succeeded in
extracting a water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it aberic acid
• In 1943, Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine for their discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure.
• In 1967, George Wald was awarded the Nobel Prize (along with Ragnar Granit and Haldan Keffer
Hartline) for his discovery that vitamin A could participate directly in a physiological process
List of vitamins
 Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble ordietary
fat-soluble. In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A,
Intake
Vitamin Vitamer chemical allowances
Solubility Deficiency disease Level Overdose disease
name name(s) (male, age 19–
(UL/day)
70)

Retinol,
Night-blindness,
retinal,
Vitamin A Fat 900 µg Hyperkeratosis, 3,000 µg Hypervitaminosis A
carotenoids
Keratomalacia[
beta carotene

Beriberi,
Drowsiness or
Wernicke-
Vitamin B1 Thiamine Water 1.2 mg N/D[ muscle relaxation
Korsakoff
with large doses.[
syndrome

Vitamin B2Vitamin B2 Riboflavin Water 1.3 mg Ariboflavinosis N/D

Liver damage (doses

Niacin,
Vitamin B3 Water 16.0 mg Pellagra 35.0 mg > 2g/day)[ and other
niacinamide
problems

Diarrhea; possibly
Vitamin B5 Pantothenic acid Water 5.0 mg Paresthesia N/D nausea and
heartburn.

Impairment of
Pyridoxine,
Anemiaperipheral proprioception,
Vitamin B6 pyridoxamine, Water 1.3–1.7 mg 100 mg
neuropathy. nerve damage (doses
pyridoxal
> 100 mg/day)

Vitamin B7 Biotin Water 30.0 µg Dermatitis,enteritis N/D

Megaloblast and
Deficiency during May mask
pregnancy is symptoms of
Folic acid, folinic
Vitamin B9 Water 400 µg associated with 1,000 µg vitamin B12
acid
birth defects, such deficiency; other
as neural tube effects.
defects

Acne-like rash
Cyanocobalamin,
Megaloblastic [causality is not
VitaminB12 hydroxycobalamin, Water 2.4 µg N/D
anemia conclusively
methylcobalamin established].

Vitamin C
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid Water 90.0 mg Scurvy 2,000 mg
megadosage

Ergocalciferol, 5.0 µg–10 µ Rickets and

Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins
Nomenclature of reclassified vitamins
Previous name Chemical name Reason for name change
Vitamin B4 Adenine DNA metabolite; synthesized in body
Vitamin B8 Adenylic acid DNA metabolite; synthesized in body
Needed in large quantities (does
Vitamin F Essential fatty acids
not fit the definition of a vitamin).
Vitamin G Riboflavin Reclassified as Vitamin B2
Vitamin H Biotin Reclassified as Vitamin B7
Vitamin J Catechol, Flavin Catechol nonessential; flavin reclassified as B2
Vitamin L1 Anthranilic acid Non essential
Vitamin L2 Adenylthiomethylpentose RNA metabolite; synthesized in body
Vitamin M Folic acid Reclassified as Vitamin B9
Vitamin O Carnitine Synthesized in body
Vitamin P Flavonoids No longer classified as a vitamin
Vitamin PP Niacin Reclassified as Vitamin B3
Proposed inclusion of salicylate as an essential
Vitamin S Salicylic acid
micronutrient
Vitamin U S-Methylmethionine Protein metabolite; synthesized in body

7. Water
Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. Its molecule contains one oxygen and
two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often
co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state, water vapor or steam.
Water covers 70.9% of the Earth's surface, and is vital for all known forms of life. On Earth, it is found
mostly in oceans and other large water bodies, with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001%
in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid and liquid water particles suspended in air), and
precipitation. Oceans hold 97% of surface water, glaciers and polar ice caps 2.4%, and other land
surface water such as rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%. A very small amount of the Earth's water is contained
within biological bodies and manufactured products.

A major nutrition fact is the body ph balance

Your health is directly related to the chemical structure of water, which affects your body ph balance. In
other words: if the aquatic solution of your body - in which every metabolic reaction happens - is too acid
or too alkaline, the cells can die, causing you health problems
On the Ph scale from 1 to 10, the neutral zone is between 7-8. The human body acid/alkaline balance has
to be between 7.35 - 7.45 to insure a good health. Eaither too acid (1-7), or to alkaline (7-10) our body
becomes sick.
• When your body is acidic, it cannot assimilate vitamins and minerals, it's susceptible to sickness, it's
difficult to lose weight, etc.
• By increasing your body pH to be more alkaline, you increase the oxygen to your body, increase your
energy, and enhance your immune system to better heal itself.
• Balancing a proper body pH is essential and controls the speed of the body's biochemical reactions,
as well as cellular and metabolic activities and functions.
• Maintaining proper body alkalinity is essential for life, health, and vitality! To regain a life-
supporting alkaline state, acids need to be buffered or neutralized through a combination of salts and
minerals.
• Alkalinity is a very important nutrition fact for our immune system, enzymatic system, repair
mechanisms, biochemical functioning, bone health, etc.

Skeleton system
The human skeleton consists of both fused and individual bones supported and supplemented by
ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It serves as a scaffold which supports organs, anchors
muscles, and protects organs such as the brain, lungs and heart. The biggest bone in the body is the
femur in the thigh, and the smallest is the stapes bone in the middle ear. In an adult, the skeleton
comprises around 30-40% of the total body weightand half of this weight is water.
Fused bones include those of the pelvis and the cranium. Not all bones are interconnected directly: there
are three bones in each middle ear called the ossicles that articulate only with each other. The hyoid
bone, which is located in the neck and serves as the point of attachment for the tongue, does not articulate
with any other bones in the body, being supported by muscles and ligaments.
Development
Early in gestation, a fetus has a cartilaginous skeleton from which the long bones and most other bones
gradually form throughout the remaining gestation period and for years after birth in a process called
endochondral ossification. The flat bones of the skull and the clavicles are formed from connective
tissue in a process known as intramembranous ossification, and ossification of the mandible occurs in
the fibrous membrane covering the outer surfaces of Meckel's cartilages. At birth, a newborn baby has
over 300 bones, whereas on average an adult human has 206 bones (these numbers can vary slightly from
individual to individual). The difference comes from a number of small bones that fuse together during
growth, such as the sacrum and coccyx of the vertebral column.
Organization
Much of the human skeleton maintains the ancient segmental pattern present in all vertebrates
(mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and amphibians) with basic units being repeated. This segmental pattern is
particularly evident in the vertebral column and in the ribcage.
There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton, a number which varies between individuals and with age
newborn babies have over 270 bones some of which fuse together into a longitudinal axis, the axial
skeleton, to which the appendicular skeleton is attached
1.Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton (80 bones) is formed by the Vertebral column (26), the Rib cage (12 pairs of ribs and
the sternum), and the skull (22 bones and 7 associated bones). The axial skeleton transmits the weight
from the head, the trunk, and the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip joints, and is
therefore responsible for the upright position of the human body. Most of the body weight is located in
back of the spinal column which therefore have the erectors spinae muscles and a large amount of
ligaments attached to it resulting in the curved shape of the spine. The 366 skeletal muscles acting on the
axial skeleton position the spine, allowing for big movements in the thoracic cage for breathing, and the
head. Conclusive research cited by the American Society for Bone Mineral Research (ASBMR)
demonstrates that weight-bearing exercise stimulates bone growth Only the parts of the skeleton that are
directly affected by the exercise will benefit. Non weight-bearing activity, including swimming and
cycling, has no effect on bone growth
2.Appendicular skeleton
The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles (4), the upper limbs (60), the
pelvic girdle (2), and the lower limbs (60). Their functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect
the major organs of locomotion, digestion, excretion, and reproduction
Function
The skeleton serves major functions.
1.Support
The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis and
associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the ribs, costal
cartilages, and the intercostal muscles the heart would collapse.
2.Movement
The joints between bones permit movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g.
the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is
powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles,
bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.
3.Protection
The skeleton protects many vital organs:
• The skull protects the brain, the eyes, and the middle and inner ears.
• The vertebrae protects the spinal cord.
• The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels.
• The clavicle and scapula protect the shoulder.
• The ilium and spine protect the digestive and urogenital systems and the hip.
• The patella and the ulna protect the knee and the elbow respectively.
• The carpals and tarsals protect the wrist and ankle respectively.
4.Blood cell production
The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, which takes place in yellow bone marrow. Marrow is found
in the center of long bones.
5.Storage
Bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron
in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of calcium,but a
mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone.
6.Endocrine regulation
Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar
(glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition
to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat
Gender-based differences
There are many differences between the male and female human skeletons. Most prominent is the
difference in the pelvis, owing to characteristics required for the processes of childbirth. The shape of a
female pelvis is flatter, more rounded and proportionally larger to allow the head of a fetus to pass. Also,
the coccyx of a female's pelvis is oriented more inferiorly whereas the man's coccyx is usually oriented
more anteriorly. This difference allows more room for a developing fetus. Men tend to have slightly
thicker and longer limbs and digit bones (phalanges), while women tend to have narrower rib cages,
smaller teeth, less angular mandibles, less pronounced cranial features such as the brow ridges and
external occipital protuberance (the small bump at the back of the skull), and the carrying angle of the
forearm is more pronounced in females. Females also tend to have more rounded shoulder blades.
Disorders
a.Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a disease of bone, which leads to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis, the bone
mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of
non-collagenous proteins in bone is altered. Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization
(WHO) in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass (20-year-old
sex-matched healthy person average) as measured by DXA; the term "established osteoporosis" includes
the presence of a fragility fracture. Osteoporosis is most common in women after the menopause, when
it is called postmenopausal osteoporosis, but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the
presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and
medications, specifically glucocorticoids, when the disease is craned steroid- or glucocorticoid-induced
osteoporosis (SIOP or GIOP).
Osteoporosis can be prevented with lifestyle advice and medication, and preventing falls in people with
known or suspected osteoporosis is an established way to prevent fractures. Osteoporosis can also be
prevented with having a good source of calcium and vitamin D. Osteoporosis can be treated with
bisphosphonates and various other medical treatments..

b.Osteochondrodysplasia
Osteochondrodysplasia is a general term for a disorder of the development (dysplasia) of bone ("osteo")
and cartilage ("chondro")
c.Achondroplasia
Achondroplasia is a type of autosomal dominant genetic disorder that is a common cause of dwarfism.
Achondroplastic dwarfs have short stature, with an average adult height of 131 cm (4 feet, 3.8 inches)
for males and 123 cm (4 feet, 0.6 inches) for females.The prevalence is approximately 1 in 25,000.
d.Cleidocranial dysostosis
Cleidocranial dysostosis is a general skeletal condition so named from the collarbone (cleido-) and
cranium deformities which people with it often have. Common features include:
• Partly or completely missing collarbones.
• A soft spot or larger soft area in the top of the head where the fontanelle failed to
close.
• Bones and joints are underdeveloped.
• The permanent teeth include supernumerary teeth.
• Permanent teeth not erupting
• Bossing (bulging) of the forehead.
• Hypertelorism
e.Fibrous dysplasia
Fibrous dysplasia causes bone thinning and growths or lesions in one or more bones of the human body.
These lesions are tumor-like growths that consist of replacement of the medullary bone with fibrous
tissue, causing the expansion and weakening of the areas of bone involved. Especially when involving
the skull or facial bones, the lesions can cause externally visible deformities. The skull is often, but not
necessarily, affected, and any other bone(s) can be involved.
f.Langer-Giedion syndrome
Langer-Giedion syndrome is a very rare genetic disorder caused by a deletion of chromosomal material.
Diagnosis is usually made at birth or in early childhood.
The features associated with this condition include mild to moderate learning difficulties, short stature,
unique facial features, small head and skeletal abnormalities including bony growths projecting from the
surfaces of bones.
g.Mafucci syndrome
Maffucci syndrome is a sporadic disease characterized by the presence of multiple enchondromas
associated with multiple simple or cavernous soft tissue hemangiomas. Also lymphangiomas may be
apparent.
Patients are normal at birth and the syndrome manifests during childhood and puberty. The enchondromas
affect the extremities and their distribution is asymmetrical.
h.Osteosclerosis
Osteosclerosis, an elevation in bone density, is normally detected on an X-ray as an area of whiteness,
and is where the bone density has significantly increased. Localized osteosclerosis can be caused by
injuries that compress the bone, by osteoarthritis, and osteoma.

Muscular system
The muscular system is the anatomical system of a species that allows it to move. The muscular system in
vertebrates is controlled through the nervous system, although some muscles (such as the cardiac
muscle) can be completely autonomous.
There are three distinct types of muscles: skeletal muscles, cardiac or heart muscles, and smooth (non-
striated) muscles. Muscles provide strength, balance, posture, movement and heat for the body to keep
warm.
Upon stimulation by an action potential, skeletal muscles perform a coordinated contraction by
shortening each sarcomere. The best proposed model for understanding contraction is the sliding filament
model of muscle contraction. Actin and myosin fibers overlap in a contractile motion towards each other.
Myosin filaments have club-shaped heads that project toward the actin filaments.
Larger structures along the myosin filament called myosin heads are used to provide attachment points on
binding sites for the actin filaments. The myosin heads move in a coordinated style, they swivel toward
the center of the sarcomere, detach and then reattach to the nearest active site of the actin filament. This is
called a rachet type drive system. This process consumes large amounts of adenosine triphosphate
Distinct types of muscles
1.Heart muscle
Heart muscles are distinct from skeletal muscles because the muscle fibers are laterally connected to each
other. Furthermore, just as with smooth muscles, they are not controlling themselves. Heart muscles are
controlled by the sinus node influenced by the autonomic nervous system.
2.Smooth muscle
Smooth muscles are controlled directly by the autonomic nervous system and are involuntary, meaning
that they are incapable of being moved by conscious thought. Functions such as heart beat and lungs
(which are capable of being willingly controlled, be it to a limited extent) are involuntary muscles but are
not smooth muscles.
Control of muscle contraction
Neuromuscular junctions are the focal point where a motor neuron attaches to a muscle. Acetylcholine,
(a neurotransmitter used in skeletal muscle contraction) is released from the axon terminal of the nerve
cell when an action potential reaches the microscopic junction, called a synapse. A group of chemical
messengers cross the synapse and stimulate the formation of electrical changes, which are produced in the
muscle cell when the acetylcholine binds to receptors on its surface. Calcium is released from its storage
area in the cell's sarcoplasmic reticulum. An impulse from a nerve cell causes calcium release and brings
about a single, short muscle contraction called a muscle twitch. If there is a problem at the
 neuromuscular junction, a very prolonged contraction may occur, tetanus. Also, a loss of function at the
junction can produce paralysis.
Skeletal muscles are organized into hundreds of motor units, each of which involves a motor neuron,
attached by a series of thin finger-like structures called axon terminals. These attach to and control
discrete bundles of muscle fibers. A coordinated and fine tuned response to a specific circumstance will
involve controlling the precise number of motor units used. While individual muscle units contract as a
unit, the entire muscle can contract on a predetermined basis due to the structure of the motor unit. Motor
unit coordination, balance, and control frequently come under the direction of the cerebellum of the brain.
This allows for complex muscular coordination with little conscious effort, such as when one drives a car
without thinking about the process.
Table of muscles of the human body
There are approximately 639 skeletal muscles in the human body.
The following are some major muscles and their basic features:

Muscle Origin Insertion Artery Nerve Action Antagonist

plantarflexion,
Tibialis anterior
gastrocnemius femur calcaneus sural arteries tibial nerve flexion of knee
muscle
(minor)key
inversion of
the foot,
posterior tibial Tibialis anterior
tibialis posterior tibia, fibula Foot tibial nerve plantar flexion
artery muscle
of the foot at
the ankle
fibula, medial Tibialis anterior
soleus calcaneus sural arteries tibial nerve plantarflexion
border of tibia muscle
Fibularis longus,
anterior tibial dorsiflex and Gastrocnemius,
tibialis anterior tibia foot Fibular nerve
artery invert the foot Soleus, Plantaris,
Tibialis posterior
Superficial fibular plantarflexion, Tibialis anterior
longus fibula Foot fibular artery
nerve eversion muscle
Foot, peroneal superficial
brevis fibula
eversion artery peroneal nerve
external
ilium, sacrum, Gluteal Iliacus, Psoas
gluteus maximus inferior gluteal rotation and
sacrotuberous tuberosity gluteal arteries major, Psoas
muscle nerve extension of
ligament of the femur minor
the hip joint
flexes and
inferior gluteal
tibial nerve, laterally
ischium, artery, Quadriceps
biceps femoris fibula common peroneal rotates knee
femur popliteal muscle
nerve joint, extends
artery
hip joint
flex knee,
inferior gluteal Quadriceps
semitendinosus ischium tibia sciatic extend hip
artery muscle
joint
semimembranosus ischium tibia profunda sciatic nerve Hip extension, Quadriceps
 femoris,
Knee flexion muscle
gluteal artery
medial femoral Gluteus
circumflex maximus,
femoral nerve,
iliopsoas ilium femur artery, flexion of hip posterior
lumbar nerves
iliolumbar compartment of
artery thigh
combined
Knee
quadriceps rectus femoris
and vastus femoral artery Femoral nerve extension; Hip Hamstring
femoris
muscles flexion
adductor muscles adduction of
pubis femur, tibia obturator nerve
of the hip hip
Elevates
cervical nerve, scapula, tilts
vertebral dorsal scapular
levator scapulae scapula dorsal scapular its glenoid
column artery
nerve cavity
inferiorly
the rear of the
skull, clavicle, cranial nerve XI, retraction of Serratus
trapezius
vertebral scapula cervical nerves scapula anterior muscle
column
Costal
inferior segmentally by flexion of
cartilage of
rectus abdominis pubis epigastric thoraco- trunk/lumbar Erector spinae
ribs 5-7,
artery abdominal nerves vertebrae
sternum
lower intercostal compress the
nerves, ribs and
transversus pubic
ribs, ilium iliohypogastric viscera,
abdominis tubercle
nerve and the thoracic and
ilioinguinal nerve pelvic stability
Crista
Abdominal lower 6 intercostal
Lower 8 iliaca,
external oblique nerve, subcostal Rotates torso
costae ligamentum
muscle nerve
inguinale
Inguinal Linea alba, Compresses
Abdominal ligament, Iliac sternum abdomen and
internal oblique crest and the and the rotates
muscle Lumbodorsal inferior vertebral
fascia ribs. column.
erector spinae on the spines both the lateral sacral posterior branch extends the Rectus
of the last spines of the artery of spinal nerve vertebral abdominis
four thoracic most column muscle
vertebræ cranial
thoracic
vertebrae
and the
cervical
vertebrae
pectoralis major clavicle, humerus thoracoacromial lateral pectoral Clavicular head: flexes
 the humerus
Sternocostal head:
extends the humerus
sternum, costal nerve and medial As a whole, adducts and
trunk
cartilages pectoral nerve medially rotates the
humerus. It also draws
the scapula anteriorly
and inferiorly.

flexes elbow
biceps brachii Musculocutaneous Triceps brachii
scapula radius brachial artery and supinates
nerve muscle
forearm
extends
forearm, caput
scapula and deep brachial Biceps brachii
triceps brachii ulna radial nerve longum
humerus artery muscle
adducts
shoulder
radial
musculocutaneous flexion at
brachialis humerus ulna recurrent
nerve elbow joint
artery
ulnar artery pronation of
Supinator
pronator teres humerus, ulna radius and radial median nerve forearm, flexes
muscle
artery elbow
radial
Flexion of
brachioradialis humerus radius recurrent radial nerve
forearm
artery
Retracts the
nuchal scapula and
ligaments, rotates it to
spinous dorsal scapular dorsal scapular depress the Serratus
rhomboids scapula
processes of artery nerve glenoid cavity. anterior muscle
the C7 to T5 fixes the
vertebrae scapula to the
thoracic wall.
primarily shoulder
clavicle, deltoid
posterior abduction,
deltoid acromion, tuberosity Axillary nerve Latissimus dorsi
circumflex flexion and
scapula of humerus
humeral artery extension
vertebral pulls the
subscapular
column, ilium thoracodorsal forelimb deltoid,
latissimus dorsi humerus artery, dorsal
and inferior 3 nerve dorsally and trapezius
scapular artery
or 4 ribs caudally
Circulatory system
The circulatory system is an organ system that passes nutrients (such as amino acids, electrolytes and
lymph), gases, hormones, blood cells, etc. to and from cells in the body to help fight diseases and help
stabilize body temperature and pH to maintain homeostasis.
This system may be seen strictly as a blood distribution network, but some consider the circulatory system
as composed of the cardiovascular system, which distributes bloodand the lymphatic system, which
distributes lymph. While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system
(meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries), some invertebrate
groups have an open cardiovascular system. The most primitive animal phyla lack circulatory systems.
The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system
Two types of fluids move through the circulatory system: blood and lymph. The blood, heart, and blood
vessels form the cardiovascular system. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic
system. The cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system collectively make up the circulatory system.
Human cardiovascular system
The main components of the human cardiovascular system are the heart, the veins, and the blood vessels.
It includes
1.Pulmonary circulation
2.Systemic circulation
3.Coronary circulation
1.Pulmonary circulation:The Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which
transports oxygen-depleted blood away from the heart, to the lungs, and returns oxygenated blood back to
the heart.Oxygen deprived blood from the vena cava enters the right atrium of the heart and flows
through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle, from which it is pumped through the pulmonary
semilunar valve into the pulmonary arteries which go to the lungs. Pulmonary veins return the now
oxygen-rich blood to the heart, where it enters the left atrium before flowing through the mitral valve into
the left ventricle. Then, oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle is pumped out via the aorta, and on to
the rest of the body.
2.Systemic circulation:Systemic circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which transports
oxygenated blood away from the heart, to the rest of the body, and returns oxygen-depleted blood back to
the heart. Systemic circulation is, distance-wise, much longer than pulmonary circulation, transporting
blood to every part of the body.
3.Coronary circulation:Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the blood vessels of the heart
muscle (the myocardium). The vessels that deliver oxygen-rich blood to the myocardium are known as
coronary arteries. The vessels that remove the deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle are known as
cardiac veins.
.These arteries, when healthy, are capable of autoregulation to maintain coronary blood flow at levels
appropriate to the needs of the heart muscle. These relatively narrow vessels are commonly affected by
atherosclerosis and can become blocked, causing angina or a heart attack. The coronary arteries that run
deep within the myocardium are referred to as subendocardial.
The coronary arteries are classified as "end circulation", since they represent the only source of blood
supply to the myocardium: there is very little redundant blood supply, which is why blockage of these
vessels can be so critical.
The main components of the human cardiovascular system
1.Heart The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In the
human heart there is one atrium and one ventricle for each circulation, and with both a systemic and a
 pulmonary circulation there are four chambers in total: left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium and right
ventricle. The right atrium is the upper chamber of the right side of the heart. The blood that is returned to
the right atrium is deoxygenated (poor in oxygen) and passed into the right ventricle to be pumped through
the pulmonary artery to the lungs for re-oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide. The left atrium
receives newly oxygenated blood from the lungs as well as the pulmonary vein which is passed into the
strong left ventricle to be pumped through the aorta to the different organs of the body.
2.Blood vessels: The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout the body.
There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the
capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the
veins, which carry blood from the capillaries back toward the heart.
There are various kinds of blood vessels:
• Arteries
a.Aorta (the largest artery, carries blood out of the heart)
b.Branches of the aorta, such as the carotid artery, the subclavian artery, the celiac trunk, the mesenteric arteries,
the renal artery and the iliac artery.
• Arterioles
• Capillaries (the smallest blood vessels)
• Venules
3.Veins
In the circulatory system, veins (from the Latin vena) are blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart. Most
veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical
veins, both of which carry oxygenated blood to the heart. Veins differ from arteries in structure and function; for
example, arteries are more muscular than veins, veins contain valves, and arteries carry blood away from the heart.
Measurement techniques
• Electrocardiogram—for cardiac electrophysiology
• Sphygmomanometer and stethoscope—for blood pressure
• Pulse meter—for cardiac function (heart rate, rhythm, dropped beats)
• Pulse—commonly used to determine the heart rate in absence of certain cardiac pathologies
• Heart rate variability -- used to measure variations of time intervals between heart beats
• Nail bed blanching test—test for perfusion
• Vessel cannula or catheter pressure measurement—pulmonary wedge pressure or in older animal experiments
Lymphatic system
Part of the immune system is the lymphatic system which is made up of a network of conduits that carry a clear
fluid called lymph (from Latin lympha "waterThe conduits, also known as lymphatic vessels, compose a one-way
system in which lymph flows only toward the heart. Lymphoid tissue is found in many organs, particularly the
lymph nodes, and in the lymphoid follicles associated with the digestive system such as the tonsils. The system
also includes all the structures dedicated to the circulation and production of lymphocytes, which includes the
spleen, thymus, bone marrow and the lymphoid tissue associated with the digestive systemThe lymphatic system
as we know it today was first described independently by Olaus Rudbeck and Thomas Bartholin.
The blood does not directly come in contact with the parenchymal cells and tissues in the body, but constituents of
the blood first exit the microvascular exchange blood vessels to become interstitial fluid, which comes into contact
with the parenchymal cells of the body. Lymph is the fluid that is formed when interstitial fluid enters the initial
lymphatic vessels of the lymphatic system. The lymph is then moved along the lymphatic vessel network by either
intrinsic contractions of the lymphatic vessels or by extrinsic compression of the lymphatic vessels via external
tissue forces (e.g. the contractions of skeletal muscles).
Function
The lymphatic system has multiple interrelated functions:
• it is responsible for the removal of interstitial fluid from tissues
• it absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chyle to the circulatory system
• it transports immune cells to and from the lymph nodes in to the bone
• The lymph transports antigen-presenting cells (APCs), such as dendritic cells, to the lymph nodes where
an immune response is stimulated.
Lymphatic tissue is a specilized connective tissue - reticular connective, that contains large quantities of lymphocytes.
Clinical significance
 The study of lymphatic drainage of various organs is important in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of cancer. The
lymphatic system, because of its physical proximity to many tissues of the body, is responsible for carrying cancerous
cells between the various parts of the body in a process called metastasis. The intervening lymph nodes can trap the
cancer cells. If they are not successful in destroying the cancer cells the nodes may become sites of secondary tumors.
Diseases of the lymphatic system: Lymphedema is the swelling caused by the accumulation of lymph fluid,
which may occur if the lymphatic system is damaged or has malformations. It usually affects the limbs, though face,
neck and abdomen may also be affected.
Excretory system
The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary or dangerous
materials from an organism, so as to help maintain homeostasis within the organism and prevent damage to
the body. It is responsible for the elimination of the waste products of metabolism as well as other liquid
and gaseous wastes. As most healthy functioning organs produce metabolic and other wastes, the entire
organism depends on the function of the system; however, only the organs specifically for the excretion
process are considered a part of the excretory system.
Excretory functions
Removes metabolic and liquid toxin wastes as well as excess water from the organism.
Within each kidney are an estimated one million microscopic nephrons. Filtering of the blood takes place
within these areas. Each nephron contains a cluster of capillaries called a glomerulus. A cup-shaped sac
called a bowmans capsule surrounds each glomerolus. The blood that flows through the glomerulus is
under great pressure. This causes glomerulus, water, glucose and urea to enter the bowmans capsule. White
blood cells, red blood cells and proteins remains in the blood. As the blood continues through the blood
vessels, it winds around the renal tubule. During this time, reabsorption occurs. Glucose and chemicals ,
such as potassium ,sodium, hydrogen magnesium and calcium are reabsorbed into the blood. Almost all the
water removed during filteration returns to the blood during the reabsorption phase. The kidneys control the
amount of liquid in our bodies. Now only wastes are in the nephron. These wastes are called urine and
include urea, water and inorganic salts. The cleansed blood goes into veins that carry the blood from the
kidneys and back to the heart
Component organs
1.Skin
Excretion by definition is passive a and deals with metabolic wastes as filtered by the kidneys. Though the
sweat may contain a trace amount of metabolic wastes, sweating is an active process of secretion not
excretion, specifically for temperature control and pheromone release. Therefore, its role as a part of the
excretory system is minimal at best. Specifically, the skin secretes a fluid waste called sweat.
2.lungs
The lungs of mammals have a spongy and soft texture and are honeycombed with epithelium, having a
much larger surface area in total than the outer surface area of the lung itself. The lungs of humans are a
typical example of this type of lung.
Breathing is largely driven by the muscular diaphragm at the bottom of the thorax. Contraction of the
diaphragm pulls the bottom of the cavity in which the lung is enclosed downward, increasing volume and
thus decreasing pressure, causing air to flow into the airways. Air enters through the oral and nasal
cavities; it flows through the pharynx, then the larynx and into the trachea, which branches out into the
main bronchi and then subsequent divisions. During normal breathing, expiration is passive and no
muscles are contracted (the diaphragm relaxes). The rib cage itself is also able to expand and contract to
some degree, through the action of other respiratory and accessory respiratory muscles. As a result, air is
transported into or expelled out of the lungs. This type of lung is known as a bellows lung as it resembles
a blacksmith's bellows
Non respiratory functions
In addition to their function in respiration, the lungs also:
• Alter the pH of blood by facilitating alterations in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide
• Filter out small blood clots formed in veins
 • Filter out gas micro-bubbles occurring in the venous blood stream such as those created after scuba
diving during decompression
• Influence the concentration of some biologic substances and drugs used in medicine in blood
• Convert angiotensin I to angiotensin II by the action of angiotensin-converting enzyme
• May serve as a layer of soft, shock-absorbent protection for the heart, which the lungs flank and nearly
enclose.
• Immunoglobulin-A is secreted in the bronchial secretion and protects against respiratory infections.
• Maintain sterility by producing mucus containing antimicrobial compoundsMucus contains
glycoproteins, e.g. mucins, lactoferrin, lysozyme, lactoperoxidase. We find also on the epithelium Dual
oxidase 2 proteins generating hydrogen peroxide, useful for hypothiocyanite endogenous antimicrobial
synthesis. Function not in place in cystic fibrosis patient lungs.
• Ciliary escalator action is an important defence system against air-borne infection.The dust particles and
bacteria in the inhaled air are caught in the mucous layer present at the mucosal surface of respiratory
passages and are moved up towards pharynx by the rhythmic upward beating action of the cilia
3.Kidneys
The kidney has a bean-shaped structure, each kidney has concave and convex surfaces. The concave
surface, the renal hilum, is the point at which the renal artery enters the organ, and the renal vein and ureter
leave. The kidney is surrounded by tough fibrous tissue, the renal capsule, which is itself surrounded by
perinephric fat, renal fascia (of Gerota) and paranephric fat. The anterior (front) border of these tissues is the
peritoneum, while the posterior (rear) border is the transversalis fascia.
The superior border of the right kidney is adjacent to the liver; and the spleen, for the left border. Therefore,
both move down on inhalation.
The kidney is approximately 11–14 cm in length, 6 cm wide and 4 cm thick.
The substance, or parenchyma, of the kidney is divided into two major structures: superficial is the renal
cortex and deep is the renal medulla. Grossly, these structures take the shape of 8 to 18 cone-shaped renal
lobes, each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a renal pyramid (of Malpighi).[5]
Between the renal pyramids are projections of cortex called renal columns (of Bertin). Nephrons, the urine-
producing functional structures of the kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The initial filtering portion of a
nephron is the renal corpuscle, located in the cortex, which is followed by a renal tubule that passes from the
cortex deep into the medullary pyramids. Part of the renal cortex, a medullary ray is a collection of renal
tubules that drain into a single collecting duct.
The tip, or papilla, of each pyramid empties urine into a minor calyx, minor calyces empty into major
calyces, and major calyces empty into the renal pelvis, which becomes the ureter.
In humans the kidneys are located in the abdominal cavity, more specifically in the paravertebral gutter and
lie in a retroperitoneal position at a slightly oblique angle. There are two, one on each side of the spine. The
asymmetry within the abdominal cavity caused by the liver typically results in the right kidney being
slightly lower than the left, and left kidney being located slightly more medial than the right. The left kidney
is approximately at the vertebral level T12 to L3, and the right slightly lower. The right kidney sits just
below the diaphragm and posterior to the liver, the left below the diaphragm and posterior to the spleen.
Resting on top of each kidney is an adrenal gland. The upper (cranial) parts of the kidneys are partially
protected by the eleventh and twelfth ribs, and each whole kidney and adrenal gland are surrounded by two
layers of fat (the perirenal and pararenal fat) and the renal fascia. Each adult kidney weighs between 125
and 170 grams in males and between 115 and 155 grams in females. The left kidney is typically slightly
larger than the right
Functions
The kidney generates 180 liters of filtrate a day, while reabsorbing a large percentage, allowing for only
the generation of approximately 2 liters of urine. Reabsorption is the transport of molecules from this
ultrafiltrate and into the blood. Secretion is the reverse process, in which molecules are transported in the
opposite direction, from the blood into the urine.
i.Excretion of wastes
The kidneys excrete a variety of waste products produced by metabolism. These include the nitrogenous
wastes urea, from protein catabolism, and uric acid, from nucleic acid metabolism.
ii.Acid-base homeostasis
Two organ systems, the kidneys and lungs, maintain acid-base homeostasis, which is the maintenance of
pH around a relatively stable value. The kidneys contribute to acid-base homeostasis by regulating
bicarbonate (HCO3-) concentration. The kidneys have two important roles in the maintaining of the acid-
base balance: to reabsorb bicarbonate from and to excrete hydrogen ions into urine
iii.Osmolality regulation
Any significant rise in plasma osmolality is detected by the hypothalamus, which communicates directly with
the posterior pituitary gland. An increase in osmolality causes the gland to secrete antidiuretic hormone
(ADH), resulting in water reabsorption by the kidney and an increase in urine concentration. The two factors work
together to return the plasma osmolality to its normal levels.
iv.Blood pressure regulation
Long-term regulation of blood pressure predominantly depends upon the kidney. This primarily occurs through
maintenance of the extracellular fluid compartment, the size of which depends on the plasma sodium
concentration. Although the kidney cannot directly sense blood pressure, changes in the delivery of sodium and
chloride to the distal part of the nephron alter the kidney's secretion of the enzyme renin. When the extracellular
fluid compartment is expanded and blood pressure is high, the delivery of these ions is increased and renin secretion
is decreased. Similarly, when the extracellular fluid compartment is contracted and blood pressure is low, sodium
and chloride delivery is decreased and renin secretion is increased in response.
v.Hormone secretion
The kidneys secrete a variety of hormones, including erythropoietin, calcitriol, and the enzyme renin.
Erythropoietin is released in response to hypoxia (low levels of oxygen at tissue level) in the renal circulation. It
stimulates erythropoiesis (production of red blood cells) in the bone marrow. Calcitriol, the activated form of
vitamin D, promotes intestinal absorption of calcium and the renal reabsorption of phosphate. Part of the renin-
angiotensin-aldosterone system, renin is an enzyme involved in the regulation of aldosterone levels
4.Defecation
Organisms eliminate solid, semisolid or liquid waste material (feces) from the digestive tract via the anus during the
process of defecation. Waves of muscular contraction known as peristalsis in the walls of the colon move fecal matter
through the digestive tract towards the rectum. Undigested food may also be expelled this way; this process is called
egestion.
5.Ureter
In human anatomy, the ureters are muscular ducts that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. In
the adult, the ureters are usually 25–30 cm (10–12 in) long. In humans, the ureters arise from the renal pelvis on the
medial aspect of each kidney before descending towards the bladder on the front of the psoas major muscle. The
ureters cross the pelvic brim near the bifurcation of the iliac arteries (which they run over). This "pelviureteric
junction" is a common site for the impaction of kidney stones (the other being the uteterovesical valve). The ureters
run posteroinferiorly on the lateral walls of the pelvis. They then curve anteriormedially to enter the bladder through
the back, at the vesicoureteric junction, running within the wall of the bladder for a few centimeters. The backflow
of urine is prevented by valves known as ureterovesical valves. In the female, the ureters pass through the
mesometrium on the way to the urinary bladder.
6.Urinary bladder
The urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal by urination. A
hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic) organ, the bladder sits on the pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via
the ureters and exits via the urethra.
Embryologically, the bladder is derived from the urogenital sinus and, it is initially continuous with the allantois.
In males, the base of the bladder lies between the rectum and the pubic symphysis. It is superior to the prostate, and
separated from the rectum by the rectovesical excavation. In females, the bladder sits inferior to the uterus and
anterior to the vagina. It is separated from the uterus by the vesicouterine excavation. In infants and young
children, the urinary bladder is in the abdomen even when empty.
7.Urethra
In anatomy, the urethra (from Greek - ourethra) is a tube which connects the urinary bladder to the outside of the
body. The urethra has an excretory function in both sexes to pass urine to the outside, and also a reproductive
function in the male, as a passage for semen during sexual activity.
The external urethral sphincter is a striated muscle that allows voluntary control over urine
Urine Formation
First, the blood goes through the afferent artery, to the capillaries called glomerulus, to the Bowman's capsule. The
Bowman's capsule squeezes the blood from its contents-primarily food and wastes. After the squeezing process, the
blood will then come back to get the food nutrients it need. The wastes will then go to the collecting duct, to the
renal pelvis, and to the ureter, which will be then secreted out of the body.

Digestive systems
The whole digestive system is around 9 meters long. In a healthy human adult this process can take
between 24 and 72 hours. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors
such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal
Phases of gastric secretion
• Cephalic phase - This phase occurs before food enters the stomach and involves preparation of the body
for eating and digestion. Sight and thought stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimulus is sent
to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release
of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is
not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes
gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.
• Gastric phase - This phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of
food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myentric reflexes. This activates the
release of acetylcholine which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the
stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which lowers the pH of the stomach to around pH 1-3. Inhibition of
gastrin and HCl secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates
parietal cells to secrete HCl. HCl release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.
• Intestinal phase - This phase has 2 parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills
the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei,
activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from
entering, and
1.Oral cavity Mouth (human):In humans, digestion begins in the oral cavity where food is chewed.
Saliva is secreted in large amounts (1-1.5 litres/day) by three pairs of exocrine salivary glands (parotid,
submandibular, and sublingual) in the oral cavity, and is mixed with the chewed food by the tongue. There
are two types of saliva. One is a thin, watery secretion, and its purpose is to wet the food. The other is a
thick, mucous secretion, and it acts as a lubricant and causes food particles to stick together and form a
bolus. The saliva serves to clean the oral cavity and moisten the food, and contains digestive enzymes
such as salivary amylase, which aids in the chemical breakdown of polysaccharides such as starch into
disaccharides such as maltose. It also contains mucous, a glycoprotein which helps soften the food into a
bolus. There is an additional enzyme named lingual lipase which break down lipids into di- and
monoglyceride.
Swallowing transports the chewed food into the esophagus, passing through the oropharynx and
hypopharynx. The mechanism for swallowing is coordinated by the swallowing center in the medulla
oblongata and pons. The reflex is initiated by touch receptors in the pharynx as the bolus of food is pushed
to the back of the mouth.
2.Pharynx:The pharynx is the part of the neck and throat situated immediately posterior to (behind) the
mouth and nasal cavity, and cranial, or superior, to the esophagus. It is part of the digestive system and
respiratory system. Because both food and air pass through the pharynx, a flap of connective tissue, the
epiglottis closes over the trachea when food is swallowed to prevent choking or asphyxiation.
The oropharynx is that part of the pharynx which lies behind the oral cavity and is lined by stratified
squamous epithelium. The nasopharynx lies behind the nasal cavity and like the nasal passages is lined
with ciliated columnar pseudostratified epithelium.
Like the oropharynx above it the hypopharynx (laryngopharynx) serves as a passageway for food and air
and is lined with a stratified squamous epithelium. It lies inferior to the upright epiglottis and extends to the
larynx, where the respiratory and digestive pathways diverge. At that point, the laryngopharynx is
continuous with the esophagus. During swallowing, food has the "right of way", and air passage temporarily
stops.
3.salivary glands: The salivary glands in mammals are exocrine glands, glands with ducts, that produce
saliva. They also secrete amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch into maltose. In other organisms
such as insects, salivary glands are often used to produce biologically important proteins like silk or glues,
and fly salivary glands contain polytene chromosomes that have been useful in genetic research.
4.Esophagus:The esophagus is a narrow muscular tube about 20-30 centimeters long which starts at
pharynx at the back of the mouth, passes through the thoracic diaphragm, and ends at the cardiac orifice
of the stomach. The wall of the esophagus is made up of two layers of smooth muscles, which form a
continuous layer from the esophagus to the open and contract slowly, over long periods of time. The inner
layer of muscles is arranged circularly in a series of descending rings, while the outer layer is arranged
longitudinally. At the top of the esophagus, is a flap of tissue called the epiglottis that closes during
swallowing to prevent food from entering the trachea (windpipe). The chewed food is pushed down the
esophagus to the stomach through peristaltic contraction of these muscles. It takes only about seven
seconds for food to pass through the esophagus and now digestion takes place.
Stomach
The stomach is a small, 'J'-shaped pouch with walls made of thick, elastic muscles, which stores and helps
break down food. Food which has been reduced to very small particles is more likely to be fully digested in
the small intestine, and stomach churning has the effect of assisting the physical disassembly begun in the
mouth. Ruminants, who are able to digest fibrous material (primarily cellulose), use fore-stomachs and
repeated chewing to further the disassembly. Rabbits and some other animals pass some material through
their entire digestive systems twice. Most birds ingest small stones to assist in mechanical processing in
gizzards.
Food enters the stomach through the cardiac orifice where it is further broken apart and thoroughly mixed
with gastric acid, pepsin and other digestive enzymes to break down proteins. The enzymes in the
stomach also have an optimum, meaning that they work at a specific pH and temperature better than any
others. The acid itself does not break down food molecules, rather it provides an optimum pH for the
reaction of the enzyme pepsin and kills many microorganisms that are ingested with the food. It can also
denature proteins. This is the process of reducing polypeptide bonds and disrupting salt bridges which in
turn causes a loss of secondary, tertiary or quaternary protein structure. The parietal cells of the stomach
also secrete a glycoprotein called intrinsic factor which enables the absorption of vitamin B-12. Other
small molecules such as alcohol are absorbed in the stomach, passing through the membrane of the
stomach and entering the circulatory system directly. Food in the stomach is in semi-liquid form, which
upon completion is known as chyme.
After consumption of food, digestive "tonic" and peristaltic contractions begin which help to break down
the food and move it through. When the chyme reaches the opening to the duodenum known as the
pylorus, contractions "squirt" the food back into the stomach through a process called retropulsion, which
exerts additional force and further grinds down food into smaller particles. Gastric emptying is the release
of food from the stomach into the duodenum; the process is tightly controlled liquids are emptied much
more quickly than solids. Gastric emptying has attracted medical interest as rapid gastric emptying is
related to obesity and delayed gastric emptying syndrome is associated with diabetes mellitus, aging,
and gastroesophageal reflux.
The transverse section of the alimentary canal reveals four (or five, see description under mucosa)
distinct and well developed layers within the stomach:
• Serous membrane, a thin layer of mesothelial cells that is the outermost wall of the stomach.
• Muscular coat, a well-developed layer of muscles used to mix ingested food, composed of three sets running in
three different alignments. The outermost layer runs parallel to the vertical axis of the stomach (from top to bottom),
the middle is concentric to the axis (horizontally circling the stomach cavity) and the innermost oblique layer, which
is responsible for mixing and breaking down ingested food, runs diagonal to the longitudinal axis. The inner layer is
unique to the stomach, all other parts of the digestive tract have only the first two layers.
• Submucosa, composed of connective tissue that links the inner muscular layer to the mucosa and contains the
nerves, blood and lymph vessels.
• Mucosa is the extensively folded innermost layer. It can be divided into the epithelium, lamina propria, and the
muscularis mucosae, though some consider the outermost muscularis mucosae to be a distinct layer, as it develops
from the mesoderm rather than the endoderm (thus making a total of five layers). The epithelium and lamina are
 filled with connective tissue and covered in gastric glands that may be simple or branched tubular, and secrete
mucus, hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen and rennin. The mucus lubricates the food and also prevents
hydrochloric acid from acting on the walls of the stomach.

5.liver:The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. It has a wide range of
functions, including detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for
digestion. The liver is necessary for survival; there is currently no way to compensate for the absence of
liver function.
This organ plays a major role in metabolism and has a number of functions in the body, including
glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells, plasma protein synthesis, hormone production, and
detoxification. It lies below the diaphragm in the abdominal-pelvic region of the abdomen. It produces bile,
an alkaline compound which aids in digestion via the emulsification of lipids. The liver's highly
specialized tissues regulate a wide variety of high-volume biochemical reactions, including the synthesis
and breakdown of small and complex molecules, many of which are necessary for normal vital functions
The gallbladder is a hollow system that sits just beneath the liver In adults, the gallbladder measures
approximately 8 cm in length and 4 cm in diameter when fully distended. It is divided into three sections:
fundus, body and neck. The neck tapers and connects to the biliary tree via the cystic duct, which then
joins the common hepatic duct to become the common bile duct.
Function
The adult human gallbladder stores about 50 milliliters of bile, which is released into the duodenum when
food containing fat enters the digestive tract, stimulating the secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK). The
bile, produced in the liver, emulsifies fats in partly digested food.
During storage in the gallbladder, bile becomes more concentrated which increases its potency and
intensifies its effect on fats.
6.Pancreas:The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is
both an endocrine gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and
somatostatin, as well as an exocrine gland, secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that
pass to the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats in the chyme.
The pancreas is a dual-function gland, having features of both endocrine and exocrine glands.
The part of the pancreas with endocrine function is made up of approximately a millioncell clusters called
islets of Langerhans. Four main cell types exist in the islets. They are relatively difficult to distinguish
using standard staining techniques, but they can be classified by their secretion: α cells secrete glucagon
(increase glucose in blood), β cells secrete insulin (decrease glucose in blood), δ cells secrete
somatostatin (regulates/stops α and β cells), and PP cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
The islets are a compact collection of endocrine cells arranged in clusters and cords and are crisscrossed
by a dense network of capillaries. The capillaries of the islets are lined by layers of endocrine cells in
direct contact with vessels, and most endocrine cells are in direct contact with blood vessels, by either
cytoplasmic processes or by direct apposition.
The pancreas as an exocrine gland helps out the digestive system. It secretes pancreatic juice that contains
digestive enzymes that pass to the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the
carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (fats) in the chyme.
The pancreas receives regulatory innervation via hormones in the blood and through the autonomic nervous system.
These two inputs regulate the secretory activity of the pancreas.
The rectum (from the Latin rectum intestinum, meaning straight intestine) is the final straight portion of the large
intestine in some mammals, and the gut in others, terminating in the anus. The human rectum is about 12 cm long.
Its caliber is similar to that of the sigmoid colon at its commencement, but it is dilated near its termination, forming
the rectal ampulla.
Role in human defecation
The rectum intestinum acts as a temporary storage site for feces. As the rectal walls expand due to the materials
filling it from within, stretch receptors from the nervous system located in the rectal walls stimulate the desire to
defecate. If the urge is not acted upon, the material in the rectum is often returned to the colon where more water is
 absorbed. If defecation is delayed for a prolonged period, constipation and hardened feces results.When the rectum
becomes full, the increase in intrarectal pressure forces the walls of the anal canal apart, allowing the fecal matter
to enter the canal. The rectum shortens as material is forced into the anal canal and peristaltic waves propel the
feces out of the rectum. The internal and external sphincter allow the feces to be passed by muscles pulling the
anus up over the exiting feces.
7.Anus:The anus is an opening at the opposite end of an animal's digestive tract from the mouth. Its
function is to control the expulsion of feces, unwanted semi-solid matter produced during digestion,
which, depending on the type of animal, may be one or more of: matter which the animal cannot digest,
such as bones.food material after all the nutrients have been extracted, for example cellulose or lignin;
ingested matter which would be toxic if it remained in the digestive tract; and dead or excess gut bacteria
and other endosymbionts
8.Small intestine
After being processed in the stomach, food is passed to the small intestine via the pyloric sphincter. The
majority of digestion and absorption occurs here after the milky chyme enters the duodenum. Here it is
further mixed with three different liquids:
• Bile, which emulsifies fats to allow absorption, neutralizes the chyme and is used to excrete waste
products such as bilin and bile acids. Bile is produced by the liver and then stored in the gallbladder. The
bile in the gallbladder is much more concentrated.
• Pancreatic juice made by the pancreas.
• Intestinal enzymes of the alkaline mucosal membranes. The enzymes include maltase, lactase and
sucrase (all three of which process only sugars), trypsin and chymotrypsin.
As the pH level changes in the small intestines and gradually becomes basic, more enzymes are activated
further that chemically break down various nutrients into smaller molecules to allow absorption into the
circulatory or lymphatic systems. Small, finger-like structures called villi, each of which is covered with
even smaller hair-like structures called microvilli improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the
surface area of the intestine and enhancing speed at which nutrients are absorbed. Blood containing the
absorbed nutrients is carried away from the small intestine via the hepatic portal vein and goes to the liver
for filtering, removal of toxins, and nutrient processing.
The small intestine and remainder of the digestive tract undergoes peristalsis to transport food from the
stomach to the rectum and allow food to be mixed with the digestive juices and absorbed. The circular
muscles and longitudinal muscles are antagonistic muscles, with one contracting as the other relaxes. When
the circular muscles contract, the lumen becomes narrower and longer and the food is squeezed and pushed
forward. When the longitudinal muscles contract, the circular muscles relax and the gut dilates to become
wider and shorter to allow food to enter.
9.Large intestine
After the food has been passed through the small intestine, the food enters the large intestine. Within it,
digestion is retained long enough to allow fermentation due to the action of gut bacteria, which breaks down
some of the substances which remain after processing in the small intestine; some of the breakdown
products are absorbed. In humans, these include most complex saccharides (at most three disaccharides are
digestible in humans). In addition, in many vertebrates, the large intestine reabsorbs fluid; in a few, with
desert lifestyles, this reabsorbtion makes continued existence possible.
In humans, the large intestine is roughly 1.5 meters long, with three parts: the cecum at the junction with the
small intestine, the colon, and the rectum. The colon itself has four parts: the ascending colon, the
transverse colon, the descending colon, and the sigmoid colon. The large intestine absorbs water from the
bolus and stores feces until it can be egested. Food products that cannot go through the villi, such as
cellulose (dietary fiber), are mixed with other waste products from the body and become hard and
concentrated feces. The feces is stored in the rectum for a certain period and then the stored feces is
eliminated from the body due to the contraction and relaxation through the anus. The exit of this waste
material is regulated by the anal sphincter.
Fat digestion
The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones which stimulate the release of lipase from the
pancreas, largely to the liver for further processing, or to fat tissue for storage.
Digestive hormones
There are at least five hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system in mammals. There are
variations across the vertebrates, as for instance in birds. Arrangements are complex and additional details
are regularly discovered. For instance, more connections to metabolic control (largely the glucose-insulin
system) have been uncovered in recent years.
• Gastrin - is in the stomach and stimulates the gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen(an inactive
form of the enzyme pepsin) and hydrochloric acid. Secretion of gastrin is stimulated by food arriving in
stomach. The secretion is inhibited by low pH .
• Secretin - is in the duodenum and signals the secretion of sodium bicarbonate in the pancreas
and it stimulates the bile secretion in the liver. This hormone responds to the acidity of the chyme.
• Cholecystokinin (CCK) - is in the duodenum and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes in
the pancreas and stimulates the emptying of bile in the gall bladder. This hormone is secreted in response
to fat in chyme.
• Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) - is in the duodenum and decreases the stomach churning in turn
slowing the emptying in the stomach. Another function is to induce insulin secretion.
• Motilin - is in the duodenum and increases the migrating myoelectric complex component of
gastrointestinal motility and stimulates the production of pepsin.
Significance of pH in digestion
Digestion is a complex process which is controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a
normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very
weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in
saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are
sensitive to pH and will not function in a low-pH environment like the stomach. A pH below 7 indicates
an acid, while a pH above 7 indicates a base; the concentration of the acid or base, however, does also
play a role.
The pH of the stomach is very low (highly acidic) which inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrates while
there. The strong acid content of the stomach provides two benefits; it serves to denature proteins for
further digestion in the small intestines, and provides non-specific immunity, retarding or eliminating
various pathogens.
In the small intestines, the duodenum provides critical pH balancing to activate digestive enzymes. The
liver secretes bile into the duodenum to neutralise the acidic conditions from the stomach. Also the
pancreatic duct empties into the duodenum, adding bicarbonate to neutralize the acidic chyme, thus
creating a neutral environment. The mucosal tissue of the small intestines is alkaline with a pH of about 8.
Endocrine system

In physiology, the endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a type of hormone
into the bloodstream to regulate the body. It derives from the Greek words endo (Greek ένδο) meaning
inside, within, and crinis (Greek κρινής) for secrete. The endocrine system is an information signal system
like the nervous system. Hormones are substances (chemical mediators) released from endocrine tissue
into the bloodstream that attach to target tissue and allow communication among cells. Hormones regulate
many functions of an organism, including mood, growth and development, tissue function, and
metabolism. The field of study that deals with disorders of endocrine glands is endocrinology, a branch
of internal medicine.

The endocrine system is made up of a series of ductless glands that produce chemicals called hormones.
A number of glands that signal each other in sequence is usually referred to as an axis, for example, the
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Typical endocrine glands are the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal
glands. Features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and usually the
presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules storing their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as
salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less
vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen.

In addition to the specialised endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other
body systems, such as the kidney, liver, heart and gonads, have secondary endocrine functions. For
example the kidney secretes endocrine hormones such as erythropoietin and renin.

Endocrine organs and secreted hormones

Central nervous system

Sensory Organs.
Traditionally, there are five senses: sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing. Each of the 5 senses consists
of organs with specialized cells that have receptors for specific stimuli. These cells have links to the
nervous system and thus to the brain. Sensing is done at primitive levels in the cells and integrated into
sensations in the nervous system. Sight is probably the most developed sense in humans, followed closely
by hearing
1.Sight.

The eye is the organ of vision. It has a complex structure consisting of a transparent lens that focuses light
on the retina. The retina is covered with two basic types of light-sensitive cells-rods and cones. The cone
cells are sensitive to color and are located in the part of the retina called the fovea, where the light is
focused by the lens. The rod cells are not sensitive to color, but have greater sensitivity to light than the
cone cells. These cells are located around the fovea and are responsible for peripheral vision and night
vision. The eye is connected to the brain through the optic nerve. The point of this connection is called the
"blind spot" because it is insensitive to light. Experiments have shown that the back of the brain maps the
visual input from the eyes
The brain combines the input of our two eyes into a single three-dimensional image. In addition, even
though the image on the retina is upside-down because of the focusing action of the lens, the brain
compensates and provides the right-side-up perception. Experiments have been done with subjects fitted
with prisms that invert the images. The subjects go through an initial period of great confusion, but
subsequently they perceive the images as right side up.
The range of perception of the eye is phenomenal. In the dark, a substance produced by the rod cells
increases the sensitivity of the eye so that it is possible to detect very dim light. In strong light, the iris
contracts reducing the size of the aperture that admits light into the eye and a protective obscure substance
reduces the exposure of the light-sensitive cells. The spectrum of light to which the eye is sensitive varies
from the red to the violet. Lower electromagnetic frequencies in the infrared are sensed as heat, but cannot
be seen. Higher frequencies in the ultraviolet and beyond cannot be seen either, but can be sensed as
tingling of the skin or eyes depending on the frequency. The human eye is not sensitive to the polarization
of light, i.e., light that oscillates on a specific plane. Bees, on the other hand, are sensitive to polarized
light, and have a visual range that extends into the ultraviolet. Some kinds of snakes have special infrared
sensors that enable them to hunt in absolute darkness using only the heat emitted by their prey. Birds have
a higher density of light-sensing cells than humans do in their retinas, and therefore, higher visual acuity.
Color blindness or "Daltonism" is a common abnormality in human vision that makes it impossible to
differentiate colors accurately. One type of color blindness results in the inability to distinguish red from
green. This can be a real handicap for certain types of occupations. To a colorblind person, a person with
normal color vision would appear to have extrasensory perception. However, we want to reserve the term
"extrasensory perception" for perception that is beyond the range of the normal

2.Hearing.

The ear is the organ of hearing. The outer ear protrudes away from the head and is shaped like a cup to
direct sounds toward the tympanic membrane, which transmits vibrations to the inner ear through a series
of small bones in the middle ear called the malleus, incus and stapes. The inner ear, or cochlea, is a spiral-
shaped chamber covered internally by nerve fibers that react to the vibrations and transmit impulses to the
brain via the auditory nerve. The brain combines the input of our two ears to determine the direction and
distance of sounds.
The inner ear has a vestibular system formed by three semicircular canals that are approximately at right
angles to each other and which are responsible for the sense of balance and spatial orientation. The inner
ear has chambers filled with a viscous fluid and small particles (otoliths) containing calcium carbonate.
The movement of these particles over small hair cells in the inner ear sends signals to the brain that are
interpreted as motion and acceleration.
The human ear can perceive frequencies from 16 cycles per second, which is a very deep bass, to 28,000
cycles per second, which is a very high pitch. Bats and dolphins can detect frequencies higher than
100,000 cycles per second. The human ear can detect pitch changes as small as 3 hundredths of one
percent of the original frequency in some frequency ranges. Some people have "perfect pitch", which is
the ability to map a tone precisely on the musical scale without reference to an external standard. It is
estimated that less than one in ten thousand people have perfect pitch, but speakers of tonal languages like
Vietnamese and Mandarin show remarkably precise absolute pitch in reading out lists of words because
pitch is an essential feature in conveying the meaning of words in tone languages. The Eguchi Method
teaches perfect pitch to children starting before they are 4 years old. After age 7, the ability to recognize
notes does not improve much.

3.Taste.
The receptors for taste, called taste buds, are situated chiefly in the tongue, but they are also located in the
roof of the mouth and near the pharynx. They are able to detect four basic tastes: salty, sweet, bitter, and
sour. The tongue also can detect a sensation called "umami" from taste receptors sensitive to amino acids.
Generally, the taste buds close to the tip of the tongue are sensitive to sweet tastes, whereas those in the
back of the tongue are sensitive to bitter tastes. The taste buds on top and on the side of the tongue are
sensitive to salty and sour tastes. At the base of each taste bud there is a nerve that sends the sensations to
the brain. The sense of taste functions in coordination with the sense of smell. The number of taste buds
varies substantially from individual to individual, but greater numbers increase sensitivity. Women, in
general, have a greater number of taste buds than men. As in the case of color blindness, some people are
insensitive to some tastes.

4.Smell.

The nose is the organ responsible for the sense of smell. The cavity of the nose is lined with mucous membranes
that have smell receptors connected to the olfactory nerve. The smells themselves consist of vapors of various
substances. The smell receptors interact with the molecules of these vapors and transmit the sensations to the brain.
The nose also has a structure called the vomeronasal organ whose function has not been determined, but which is
suspected of being sensitive to pheromones that influence the reproductive cycle. The smell receptors are sensitive
to seven types of sensations that can be characterized as camphor, musk, flower, mint, ether, acrid, or putrid. The
sense of smell is sometimes temporarily lost when a person has a cold. Dogs have a sense of smell that is many
times more sensitive than man's.

5.Touch.

The sense of touch is distributed throughout the body. Nerve endings in the skin and other parts of the body transmit
sensations to the brain. Some parts of the body have a larger number of nerve endings and, therefore, are more
sensitive. Four kinds of touch sensations can be identified: cold, heat, contact, and pain. Hairs on the skin magnify
the sensitivity and act as an early warning system for the body. The fingertips and the sexual organs have the
greatest concentration of nerve endings. The sexual organs have "erogenous zones" that when stimulated start a
series of endocrine reactions and motor responses resulting in orgasm.
Beyond our five senses.
In addition to sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing, humans also have awareness of balance (equilibrioception),
pressure, temperature (thermoception), pain (nociception), and motion all of which may involve the coordinated use
of multiple sensory organs. The sense of balance is maintained by a complex interaction of visual inputs, the
proprioceptive sensors (which are affected by gravity and stretch sensors found in muscles, skin, and joints), the
inner ear vestibular system, and the central nervous system. Disturbances occurring in any part of the balance
system, or even within the brain's integration of inputs, can cause the feeling of dizziness or unsteadiness.
Kinesthesia is the precise awareness of muscle and joint movement that allows us to coordinate our muscles when
we walk, talk, and use our hands. It is the sense of kinesthesia that enables us to touch the tip of our nose with our
eyes closed or to know which part of the body we should scratch when we itch.
Synesthesia.Some people experience a phenomenon called synesthesia in which one type of stimulation evokes the
sensation of another. For example, the hearing of a sound may result in the sensation of the visualization of a color,
or a shape may be sensed as a smell. Synesthesia is hereditary and it is estimated that it occurs in 1 out of 1000
individuals with variations of type and intensity. The most common forms of synesthesia link numbers or letters
with colors.
Nervous system
The nervous system is an organ system containing a network of specialized cells called neurons that
coordinate the actions of an animal and transmit signals between different parts of its body. In most
animals the nervous system consists of two parts, central and peripheral. The central nervous system of
vertebrates (such as humans) contains the brain, spinal cord, and retina. The peripheral nervous
system consists of sensory neurons, clusters of neurons called ganglia, and nerves connecting them to
each other and to the central nervous system. These regions are all interconnected by means of complex
neural pathways. The enteric nervous system, a subsystem of the peripheral nervous system, has the
capacity, even when severed from the rest of the nervous system through its primary connection by the
vagus nerve, to function independently in controlling the gastrointestinal system.
Neurons send signals to other cells as electrochemical waves travelling along thin fibers called axons,
which cause chemicals called neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses. A cell that
receives a synaptic signal may be excited, inhibited, or otherwise modulated. Sensory neurons are
activated by physical stimuli impinging on them, and send signals that inform the central nervous system
of the state of the body and the external environment. Motor neurons, situated either in the central
nervous system or in peripheral ganglia, connect the nervous system to muscles or other effector organs.
Central neurons, which in vertebrates greatly outnumber the other types, make all of their input and
output connections with other neurons. The interactions of all these types of neurons form neural circuits
that generate an organism's perception of the world and determine its behavior. Along with neurons, the
nervous system contains other specialized cells called glial cells (or simply glia), which provide
structural and metabolic support.
Nervous systems are found in most multicellular animals, but vary greatly in complexity. Sponges have
no nervous system, although they have homologs of many genes that play crucial roles in nervous
system function, and are capable of several whole-body responses, including a primitive form of
locomotion. Placozoans and mesozoans—other simple animals that are not classified as part of the
subkingdom Eumetazoa—also have no nervous system. In Radiata (radially symmetric animals such
as jellyfish) the nervous system consists of a simple nerve net. Bilateria, which include the great
majority of vertebrates and invertebrates, all have a nervous system containing a brain, one central cord
(or two running in parallel), and peripheral nerves. The size of the bilaterian nervous system ranges
from a few hundred cells in the simplest worms, to on the order of 100 billion cells in humans.
Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system.
Structure
The nervous system derives its name from nerves, which are cylindrical bundles of tissue that emanate
from the brain and central cord, and branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the body. Nerves are
large enough to have been recognized by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, but their internal
structure was not understood until it became possible to examine them using a microscope. A
microscopic examination shows that nerves consist primarily of the axons of neurons, along with a
variety of membranes that wrap around them and segregate them into fascicles. The neurons that give
rise to nerves do not lie entirely within the nerves themselves—their cell bodies reside within the brain,
central cord, or peripheral ganglia.
All animals more advanced than sponges have nervous systems. However, even sponges, unicellular
animals, and non-animals such as slime molds have cell-to-cell signalling mechanisms that are
precursors to those of neurons. In radially symmetric animals such as the jellyfish and hydra, the
nervous system consists of a diffuse network of isolated cells. In bilaterian animals, which make up the
great majority of existing species, the nervous system has a common structure that originated early in
the Cambrian period, over 500 million years ago.
Cells
The nervous system is primarily made up of two categories of cells: neurons and glial cells
1.Neurons: The nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell—the neuron
(sometimes called "neurone" or "nerve cell")Neurons can be distinguished from other cells in a number
of ways, but their most fundamental property is that they communicate with other cells via synapses,
which are membrane-to-membrane junctions containing molecular machinery that allows rapid
transmission of signals, either electrical or chemical. Many types of neuron possess an axon, a
protoplasmic protrusion that can extend to distant parts of the body and make thousands of synaptic
contacts. Axons frequently travel through the body in bundles called nerves.
Even in the nervous system of a single species such as humans, hundreds of different types of neurons
exist, with a wide variety of morphologies and functions. These include sensory neurons that transmute
physical stimuli such as light and sound into neural signals, and motor neurons that transmute neural
signals into activation of muscles or glands; however in many species the great majority of neurons
receive all of their input from other neurons and send their output to other neurons
2.Glial cells:Glial cells are non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis,
form myelin, and participate in signal transmission in the nervous system.In the human brain, it is
estimated that the total number of glia roughly equals the number of neurons, although the proportions
vary in different brain areas. Among the most important functions of glial cells are to support neurons
and hold them in place; to supply nutrients to neurons; to insulate neurons electrically; to destroy
pathogens and remove dead neurons; and to provide guidance cues directing the axons of neurons to
their targets. A very important type of glial cell (oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system, and
Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system) generates layers of a fatty substance called myelin that
wraps around axons and provides electrical insulation which allows them to transmit action potentials
much more rapidly and efficiently.
Function
At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others, or
from one part of the body to others. There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells.
One is by releasing chemicals called hormones into the internal circulation, so that they can diffuse to
distant sites. In contrast to this "broadcast" mode of signaling, the nervous system provides "point-to-
point" signals—neurons project their axons to specific target areas and make synaptic connections with
specific target cells. Thus, neural signaling is capable of a much higher level of specificity than
hormonal signaling. It is also much faster: the fastest nerve signals travel at speeds that exceed 100
meters per second.
At a more integrative level, the primary function of the nervous system is to control the body. It does
this by extracting information from the environment using sensory receptors, sending signals that encode
this information into the central nervous system, processing the information to determine an appropriate
response, and sending output signals to muscles or glands to activate the response. The evolution of a
complex nervous system has made it possible for various animal species to have advanced perception
abilities such as vision, complex social interactions, rapid coordination of organ systems, and integrated
processing of concurrent signals. In humans, the sophistication of the nervous system makes it possible
to have language, abstract representation of concepts, transmission of culture, and many other features
of human society that would not exist without the human brain.
Neurons and synapses
Major elements in synaptic transmission. An electrochemical wave called an action potential travels
along the axon of a neuron. When the wave reaches a synapse, it provokes release of a puff of
neurotransmitter molecules, which bind to chemical receptor molecules located in the membrane of
the target cell.
Most neurons send signals via their axons, although some types are capable of dendrite-to-dendrite
communication. (In fact, the types of neurons called amacrine cells have no axons, and communicate
only via their dendrites.) Neural signals propagate along an axon in the form of electrochemical waves
called action potentials, which produce cell-to-cell signals at points where axon terminals make
synaptic contact with other cells.Synapses may be electrical or chemical. Electrical synapses make direct
electrical connections between neurons, but chemical synapses are much more common, and much more
diverse in function. At a chemical synapse, the cell that sends signals is called presynaptic, and the cell
that receives signals is called postsynaptic. Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic areas are full of
molecular machinery that carries out the signalling process. The presynaptic area contains large numbers
of tiny spherical vessels called synaptic vesicles, packed with neurotransmitter chemicals. When the
presynaptic terminal is electrically stimulated, an array of molecules embedded in the membrane are
activated, and cause the contents of the vesicles to be released into the narrow space between the
presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes, called the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter then binds to
receptors embedded in the postsynaptic membrane, causing them to enter an activated state. Depending
on the type of receptor, the resulting effect on the postsynaptic cell may be excitatory, inhibitory, or
modulatory in more complex ways. For example, release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at a
synaptic contact between a motor neuron and a muscle cell induces rapid contraction of the muscle cell.
The entire synaptic transmission process takes only a fraction of a millisecond, although the effects on the
postsynaptic cell may last much longer (even indefinitely, in cases where the synaptic signal leads to the
formation of a memory trace.There are literally hundreds of different types of synapses. In fact, there are
over a hundred known neurotransmitters, and many of them have multiple types of receptor. Many
synapses use more than one neurotransmitter—a common arrangement is for a synapse to use one fast-
acting small-molecule neurotransmitter such as glutamate or GABA, along with one or more peptide
neurotransmitters that play slower-acting modulatory roles. Molecular neuroscientists generally divide
receptors into two broad groups: chemically gated ion channels and second messenger systems. When a
chemically gated ion channel is activated, it forms a passage that allow specific types of ion to flow across
the membrane. Depending on the type of ion, the effect on the target cell may be excitatory or inhibitory.
When a second messenger system is activated, it starts a cascade of molecular interactions inside the target
cell, which may ultimately produce a wide variety of complex effects, such as increasing or decreasing the
sensitivity of the cell to stimuli, or even altering gene transcription.
Human brain
The human brain is the center of the human nervous system. Enclosed in the cranium, it has the same
general structure as the brains of other mammals, but is over three times as large as the brain of a typical
mammal with an equivalent body size. Most of the expansion comes from the cerebral cortex, a
convoluted layer of neural tissue that covers the surface of the forebrain. Especially expanded are the
frontal lobes, which are associated with executive functions such as self-control, planning, reasoning,
and abstract thought. The portion of the brain devoted to vision is also greatly enlarged in human beings.
Brain evolution, from the earliest shrewlike mammals through primates to hominids, is marked by a
steady increase in encephalization, or the ratio of brain to body size. The human brain has been estimated
to contain 50–100 billion (1011) neurons, of which about 10 billion (1010) are cortical pyramidal cells.
These cells pass signals to each other via as many as 1000 trillion (1015, 1 quadrillion) synaptic
connections. However, recent research has shown that the modern human brain has actually been
shrinking over the last 28,000 years
The brain monitors and regulates the body's actions and reactions. It continuously receives sensory
information, and rapidly analyzes these data and then responds, controlling bodily actions and
functions. The brainstem controls breathing, heart rate, and other autonomic processes that are
independent of conscious brain functions. The neocortex is the center of higher-order thinking,
learning, and memory. The cerebellum is responsible for the body's balance, posture, and the
coordination of movement.
In spite of the fact that it is protected by the thick bones of the skull, suspended in cerebrospinal
fluid, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood-brain barrier, the delicate nature of the human
brain makes it susceptible to many types of damage and disease. The most common forms of physical
damage are closed head injuries such as a blow to the head, a stroke, or poisoning by a wide variety
of chemicals that can act as neurotoxins. Infection of the brain is rare because of the barriers that
protect it, but is very serious when it occurs. The human brain is also susceptible to degenerative
disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease. A number of
psychiatric conditions, such as schizophrenia and depression, are widely thought to be caused at least
partially by brain dysfunctions, although the nature of such brain anomalies is not well understood
Structure
The adult human brain weighs on average about 3 lb (1.5 kg) with a size (volume) of around 1130
cubic centimetres (cm3) in women and 1260 cm3 in men, although there is substantial individual
variationMen with the same body height and body surface area as women have on average 100g
heavier brains, although these differences do not correlate in any simple way with gray matter neuron
counts or with overall measures of cognitive performance. Neanderthals, an extinct subspecies of
modern humans, had larger brains at adulthood than present-day humans. The brain is very soft,
having a consistency similar to soft gelatin or firm tofu. Despite being referred to as "grey matter",
the live cortex is pinkish-beige in color and slightly off-white in the interior. At the age of 20, a man
has around 176,000 km and a woman about 149,000 km of myelinated axons in their brains.
Brain Structures and their Functions
• Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
• Limbic System
• Brain Stem
The nervous system is your body's decision and communication center. The central nervous system
(CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made of
nerves. Together they control every part of your daily life, from breathing and blinking to helping you
memorize facts for a test. Nerves reach from your brain to your face, ears, eyes, nose, and spinal
cord... and from the spinal cord to the rest of your body. Sensory nerves gather information from the
environment; send that info to the spinal cord, which then speed the message to the brain. The brain
then makes sense of that message and fires off a response. Motor neurons deliver the instructions from
the brain to the rest of your body. The spinal cord, made of a bundle of nerves running up and down
the spine, is similar to a superhighway, speeding messages to and from the brain at every second.
The brain is made of three main parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain consists of
the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbic system). The midbrain consists of the
tectum and tegmentum. The hindbrain is made of the cerebellum, pons and medulla. Often the
midbrain, pons, and medulla are referred to together as the brainstem.
1. The Cerebrum: The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated with
higher brain function such as thought and action. The cerebral cortex is divided into four sections,
called "lobes": the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. Here is a visual
representation of the cortex
A.Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and
problem solving
B.Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli
C.Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing
D.Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and
speech
Cerebral cortex is highly wrinkled. Essentially this makes the brain more efficient, because it can
increase the surface area of the brain and the amount of neurons within it.
A deep furrow divides the cerebrum into two halves, known as the left and right hemispheres. The two
hemispheres look mostly symmetrical yet it has been shown that each side functions slightly different
than the other. Sometimes the right hemisphere is associated with creativity and the left hemisphere is
associated with logic abilities. The corpus callosum is a bundle of axons which connects these two
hemispheres.
Nerve cells make up the gray surface of the cerebrum which is a little thicker than your thumb. White
nerve fibers underneath carry signals between the nerve cells and other parts of the brain and body.
The neocortex occupies the bulk of the cerebrum. This is a six-layered structure of the cerebral cortex
which is only found in mammals. It is thought that the neocortex is a recently evolved structure, and is
associated with "higher" information processing by more fully evolved animals (such as humans,
primates, dolphins, etc).
2. The Cerebellum: The cerebellum, or "little brain", is similar to the cerebrum in that it has two
hemispheres and has a highly folded surface or cortex. This structure is associated with regulation and
coordination of movement, posture, and balance.

3. Limbic System: The limbic system, often referred to as the "emotional brain", is found buried
within the cerebrum. Like the cerebellum, evolutionarily the structure is rather old. This system
contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus
A.Thalamus- a large mass of gray matter deeply situated in the forebrain at the topmost portion of
the diencephalon. The structure has sensory and motor functions. Almost all sensory information
enters this structure where neurons send that information to the overlying cortex. Axons from every
sensory system (except olfaction) synapse here as the last relay site before the information reaches the
cerebral cortex
B.Hypothalamus- part of the diencephalon, ventral to the thalamus. The structure is involved in
functions including homeostasis, emotion, thirst, hunger, circadian rhythms, and control of the
autonomic nervous system. In addition, it controls the pituitary.
C.Amygdala- part of the telencephalon, located in the temporal lobe; involved in memory, emotion,
and fear. The amygdala is both large and just beneath the surface of the front, medial part of the
temporal lobe where it causes the bulge on the surface called the uncus. This is a component of the
limbic system.
D.Hippocampus- the portion of the cerebral hemisphers in basal medial part of the temporal lobe.
This part of the brain is important for learning and memory, for converting short term memory to more
permanent memory, and for recalling spatial relationships in the world about us
4. Brain Stem: Underneath the limbic system is the brain stem. This structure is responsible for basic
vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. Scientists say that this is the
"simplest" part of human brains because animals' entire brains, such as reptiles (who appear early on
the evolutionary scale) resemble our brain stem. The brain stem is made of the midbrain, pons, and
medulla
A.Midbrain/ Mesencephalon- the rostral part of the brain stem, which includes the tectum and
tegmentum. It is involved in functions such as vision, hearing, eyemovement, and body movement.
The anterior part has the cerebral peduncle, which is a huge bundle of axons traveling from the
cerebral cortex through the brain stem and these fibers (along with other structures) are important for
voluntary motor function.
B.Pons- part of the metencephalon in the hindbrain. It is involved in motor control and sensory
analysis.for example; information from the ear first enters the brain in the pons. It has parts that are
important for the level of consciousness and for sleep. Some structures within the pons are linked to
the cerebellum, thus are involved in movement and posture.
C. Medulla Oblongata- this structure is the caudal-most part of the brain stem, between the pons and
spinal cord. It is responsible for maintaining vital body functions, such as breathing and heartrate
Reproduction
Reproduction is the biological process by which new "offspring" individual organisms are produced
from their "parents". Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual
organism exists as the result of reproduction. The known methods of reproduction are broadly grouped
into two main types: sexual and asexual.
In asexual reproduction, an individual can reproduce without involvement with another individual of
that species. The division of a bacterial cell into two daughter cells is an example of asexual
reproduction. Asexual reproduction is not, however, limited to single-celled organisms. Most plants
have the ability to reproduce asexually.
Sexual reproduction typically requires the involvement of two individuals or gametes, one each from
opposite type of sex.
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is the process by which an organism creates a genetically similar or identical
copy of itself without a contribution of genetic material from another individual.
Bacteria divide asexually via binary fission; viruses take control of host cells to produce more
viruses;Hydras (invertebrates of the order Hydroidea) and yeasts are able to reproduce by
budding. These organisms often do not possess different sexes, and they are capable of "splitting"
themselves into two or more individuals. On the other hand, some of these species that are capable of
reproducing asexually, like hydra, yeast and jellyfish, may also reproduce sexually. For instance,
most plants are capable of vegetative reproduction—reproduction without seeds or spores—but can
also reproduce sexually. Likewise, bacteria may exchange genetic information by conjugation. Other
ways of asexual reproduction include parthenogenesis, fragmentation and spore formation that
involves only mitosis. Parthenogenesis (from the Greek παρθένος parthenos, "virgin", + γένεσις
genesis, "creation") is the growth and development of embryo or seed without fertilization by a male.
Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some species, including lower plants (where it is called
apomixis), invertebrates (e.g. water fleas, aphids, some bees and parasitic wasps), and vertebrates
(e.g. some reptiles, fish, and, very rarely, birds and sharks). It is sometimes also used to describe
reproduction modes in hermaphroditic species which can self-fertilize.
In asexual reproduction, one individual produces offspring that are genetically identical to it. These
offspring are produced by mitosis. There are many invertebrates, including sea stars and sea anemones
for example, that produce by asexual reproduction. Common forms of asexual reproduction include:
1. Budding: In this form of asexual reproduction, an offspring grows out of the body of
the parent.Ex...Hydras exhibit this type of reproduction.
2. Gemmules: (Internal Buds) In this form of asexual reproduction, a parent releases a specialized
mass of cells that can develop into offspring.Ex...Sponges exhibit this type of reproduction.
3. Fragmentation: In this type of reproduction, the body of the parent breaks into distinct pieces, each
of which can produce an offspring.Ex...Planarians exhibit this type of reproduction.
4. Regeneration: In regeneration, if a piece of a parent is detached, it can grow and develop into a
completely new individual.Ex...Echinoderms exhibit this type of reproduction.
5. Parthenogenesis: This type of reproduction involves the development of an egg that has not been
fertilized into an individual.Animals like most kinds of wasps, bees, and ants that have no sex
chromosomes reproduce by this process. Some reptiles and fish are also capable of reproducing in this
manner.
6. Mitosis: Cell division is an elegant process that enables organisms to grow and reproduce. Through
a sequence of steps, the replicated genetic material in a parent cell is equally distributed to two
daughter cells. While there are some subtle differences, mitosis is remarkably similar across
organisms.
Before a dividing cell enters mitosis, it undergoes a period of growth called interphase. Interphase is
the "holding" stage or the stage between two successive cell divisions. In this stage, the cell replicates
its genetic material and organelles in preparation for division.

Mitosis
Mitosis produces two daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell. If the parent cell is haploid
(N), then the daughter cells will be haploid. If the parent cell is diploid, the daughter cells will also
be diploid.
N →N
2N → 2N
This type of cell division allows multicellular organisms to grow and repair damaged tissue.
Summary of the Phases of Mitosis
The drawings below show chromosome movement and alignment in a cell from a species of animal that
has a diploid number of 8. As you view the drawings, keep in mind that humans have a diploid number
of 46.

Interphase
Chromosomes are not visible because they are uncoiled

Prophase

The chromosomes coil.

The nuclear membrane disintegrates.

Spindle fibers (microtubles) form.

The drawing shows a cell with 8 chromosomes. Each

chromosome has 2 chromatids for a total of 16 chromatids.

Metaphase

The chromosomes become aligned.

The drawing shows a cell with 8 chromosomes. Each

chromosome has 2 chromatids for a total of 16 chromatids.
 Anaphase

The chromatids separate; the number of chromosomes doubles.

The drawing shows a cell with 16 chromosomes. Each

chromosome has 1 chromatid for a total of 16 chromatids.

Telophase

The cell divides into two.

The chromosomes uncoil.

The nucleus reforms.

The spindle apparataus disassembles.

The drawing shows a cell with 16 chromosomes. Each

chromosome has 1 chromatid for a total of 16 chromatids.

G1 Interphase

The chromosomes have one chromatid.

The drawing shows two cells. Each cell has 8 chromosomes.

Each chromosome has 1 chromatid for a total of 8 chromatids
per cell.

Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the creation of a new organism by combining the genetic material of two
organisms. The two main processes are: meiosis, involving the halving of the number of chromosomes;
and fertilization, involving the fusion of two gametes and the restoration of the original number of
chromosomes. During meiosis, the chromosomes of each pair usually cross over to achieve
homologous recombination.
The evolution of sexual reproduction is a major puzzle. The first fossilized evidence of sexually
reproducing organisms is from eukaryotes of the Stenian period, about 1 to 1.2 billion years ago.
Sexual reproduction is the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of macroscopic
organisms, including almost all animals and plants. Bacterial conjugation, the transfer of DNA
between two bacteria, is often mistakenly confused with sexual reproduction, because the mechanics
are similar.
A major question is why sexual reproduction persists when parthenogenesis appears in some ways to
be a superior form of reproduction. Contemporary evolutionary thought proposes some explanations.
It may be due to selection pressure on the clade itself—the ability for a population to radiate more
rapidly in response to a changing environment through sexual recombination than parthenogenesis
allows. Alternatively, sexual reproduction may allow for the "ratcheting" of evolutionary speed as one
clade competes with another for a limited resource.
Gametes: Gametes are reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form a new cell
called a zygote. In humans, male gametes are sperm and female gametes are ova (eggs). Sperm are
motile and have a long, tail-like projection called a flagellum. Ova however, are non-motile and
relatively large in comparison to the male gamete.
Gametes are produced by a type of cell division called meiosis. They are haploid, meaning that they
contain only one set of chromosomes. When the haploid male and female gametes unite in a process
called fertilization, they form what is called a zygote. The zygote is diploid and contains two sets of
chromosomes.
In most cases, the male gamete, called the spermatozoan, is relatively motile and usually has a
flagellum. On the other hand, the female gamete, called the ovum, is nonmotile and relatively large in
comparison to the male gamete.
External Fertilization
External fertilization occurs mostly in wet environments and requires both the male and the female to
release their gametes into their surroundings (usually water). An advantage of external fertilization is
that it results in the production of a large number of offspring. One disadvantage is that environmental
hazards such as predators greatly reduce the chance of surviving into adulthood. Amphibians and fish
are examples of animals that reproduce this way.
Internal Fertilization
Animals that use internal fertilization specialize in the protection of the developing egg. For example,
reptiles and birds secrete eggs that are covered by a protective shell that is resistant to water loss and
damage. Mammals, with the exception of monotremes, take this idea of protection a step further by
allowing the embryo to develop within the mother. This extra protection increases the chances of
survival because mom supplies everything that the embryo needs. In fact, most mammalian mothers
continue to care for their young for several years after birth.
Male or Female
It is important to note that not all animals are strictly male or female. Animals such as sea anemones
may have both male and female reproductive parts-- hermaphrodites. It is possible for some
hermaphrodites to self-fertilize, but most must find a mate to reproduce. Since both parties involved
become fertilized, this process doubles the number of young that are produced. Hermaphroditism is a
good solution to the scarcity of potential mates. Another solution is the ability to change sex from a
male to a female (protandry) or from a female to a male (protogyny). Certain fish, like wrasses, may
change from female to male as they mature into adulthood.
Meiosis
Meiosis produces daughter cells that have one half the numbers of chromosomes as the parent cell.
2N → N
Meiosis enables organisms to reproduce sexually. Gametes (sperm and eggs) are haploid.
Meiosis involves two divisions producing a total of four daughter cells.
Summary of the Phases of Meiosis
A cell undergoing meiosis will divide two times; the first division is meiosis 1 and the second is
meiosis 2. The phases have the same names as those of mitosis. A number indicates the division
number (1st or 2nd):S
Meiosis 1: prophase 1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1, and telophase 1
Meiosis 2: prophase 2, metaphase 2, anaphase 2, and telophase 2
In the first meiotic division, the number of cells is doubled but the number of chromosomes is not.
This results in 1/2 as many chromosomes per cell.
The second meiotic division is like mitosis; the number of chromosomes does not get reduced.
Prophase I

Homologous chromosomes
become paired.

Crossing-over occurs between

homologous chromosomes.

Crossing over

Metaphase I

Homologous pairs become

aligned in the center of the cell.

The random alignment pattern is

called independent assortment.
For example, a cell with 2N = 6
chromosomes could have any of
the alignment patterns shown at
the left..

Anaphase I

Homologous chromosomes
separate.
Telophase I

This stage is absent in some

species

Interkinesis

Interkinesis is similar to
interphase except DNA
synthesis does not occur.

Prophase II

Metaphase II

Anaphase II
 Telophase II

Daughter Cells

Human male reproductive system

The human male reproductive system (or male genital system) consists of a number of sex organs
that are a part of the human reproductive process. In the case of men, these sex organs are located
outside a man's body, around the pelvic region.
The main male sex organs are the penis and the testes which produce semen and sperm, which as part
of sexual intercourse fertilize an ovum in a woman's body and the fertilized ovum (zygote) gradually
develops into a fetus, which is later born as a child
External genital organs
1.Human penis:The penis is the male copulatory organ. It has a long shaft and enlarged
bulbous-shaped tip called the glans penis, which supports the foreskin. When the male
becomes sexually aroused, the penis becomes erect and ready for sexual activity.
Erection occurs because sinuses within the erectile tissue of the penis become filled with
blood. The arteries of the penis are dilated while the veins are passively compressed so
that blood flows into the erectile cartilage under pressure. The penis expands during
sexual reproduction or through sexual excitement and may eventually begin ejaculating,
where semen passes through the urinary tract and out of the meatus
2.Scrotum:The scrotum is a pouch like structure that hangs behind the penis. It holds and protects the
testes. It also contains numerous nerves and blood vessels. During times of lower temperatures, the
muscle contracts and pulls the scrotum closer to the body, giving it a wrinkled appearance.
Internal genital organs
1.Epididymus:The epididymis is a whitish mass of tightly coiled tubes cupped against the testicles. It
acts as a maturation and storage place for sperm before they pass into the vas deferens, tubes that
carry sperm to the ampullary gland and prostatic ducts.
2.Vas deferens:The vas deferens also known as the sperm duct is a thin tube approximately 17 inches
long that starts from the epididymis to the pelvic cavity.
3.Testes:The testes, also known as the testicles, are the male gonads, the organs that produce sperm
cells. The testes are egg-shaped structures that grow to be about one inch long and rest inside the
scrotum. The testes also produces hormones, including testosterone, which stimulates the production
of sperm cells and facilitates male maturation. The testes of an adult male produce several millions of
sperm per day. Sperm cells develop in the testes in a system of tubes called seminiferous tubules.
Accessory glands
Three accessory glands provide fluids that lubricate the duct system and nourish the sperm cells. They
are the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the bulbourethral glands.
1.Seminal vesicles:Seminal vesicles are sac-like structures attached to the vas deferens at one side of
the bladder. They produce a sticky, yellowish fluid that contains fructose. This fluid provides sperm
cells energy and aids in their motility.
2.Prostate gland:The prostate gland surrounds the ejaculatory ducts at the base of the urethra, just
below the bladder. The prostate gland is responsible for the production of semen, a liquid mixture of
sperm cells, prostate fluid and seminal fluid.
3.Bulbourethral glands:The bulbourethral glands are two small glands located on the sides of the
urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly
into the urethra. This fluid lubricates and neutralizes the urethra from any acidic conditions that might
be present due to the residual drops of urine.
female reproductive system
The female reproductive system (or female genital system) contains two main parts: the uterus, which
hosts the developing fetus, produces vaginal and uterine secretions, and passes the male's sperm
through to the fallopian tubes; and the ovaries, which produce the female's egg cells. These parts are
internal; the vagina meets the external organs at the vulva, which includes the labia, clitoris and
urethra. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the
ovaries via the Fallopian tubes. At certain intervals, the ovaries release an ovum, which passes
through the Fallopian tube into the uterus.
If, in this transit, it meets with sperm, the sperm penetrate and merge with the egg, fertilizing it. The
fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, but can happen in the uterus itself. The zygote then
implants itself in the wall of the uterus, where it begins the processes of embryogenesis and
morphogenesis. When developed enough to survive outside the womb, the cervix dilates and
contractions of the uterus propel the fetus through the birth canal, which is the vagina.
The ova are larger than sperm and have formed by the time a female is born. Approximately every
month, a process of oogenesis matures one ovum to be sent down the Fallopian tube attached to its
ovary in anticipation of fertilization. If not fertilized, this egg is flushed out of the system through
menstruation.
female's internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix and ovary.
1.Vagina:The vagina is a fibro muscular tubular tract leading from the uterus to the exterior of the
body in female mammals, or to the cloaca in female birds and some reptiles. Female insects and
other invertebrates also have a vagina, which is the terminal part of the oviduct.
The vagina is the place where semen from the male is deposited into the female's body at the climax of
sexual intercourse, commonly known as ejaculation. Around the vagina, pubic hair protects the
vagina from infection and is a sign of puberty. The vagina is mainly used for sexual intercourse.
2.Cervix:The cervix is the lower, narrow portion of the uterus where it joins with the top end of the
vagina. It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall.
Approximately half its length is visible, the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view. The vagina
has a thick layer outside and it is the opening where baby comes out during delivery. The cervix is also
called the neck of the uterus.
3.Uterus:The uterus or womb is the major female reproductive organ of humans. The uterus provides
mechanical protection, nutritional support, and waste removal for the developing embryo (weeks 1 to
8) and fetus (from week 9 until the delivery). In addition, contractions in the muscular wall of the
uterus are important in ejecting the fetus at the time of birth.
The uterus contains three suspensory ligaments that help stabilize the position of the uterus and limits
its range of movement. The uterosacral ligaments, keep the body from moving inferiorly and
anteriorly. The round ligaments, restrict posterior movement of the uterus. The cardinal ligaments, also
prevent the inferior movement of the uterus.
The uterus is a pear-shaped muscular organ. Its major function is to accept a fertilized ovum which
becomes implanted into the endometrium, and derives nourishment from blood vessels which
develop exclusively for this purpose. The fertilized ovum becomes an embryo, develops into a fetus
and gestates until childbirth. If the egg does not embed in the wall of the uterus, a woman begins
menstruation and the egg is flushed away.
4.Oviducts:The Fallopian tubes or oviducts are two tubes leading from the ovaries of female
mammals into the uterus.
On maturity of an ovum, the follicle and the ovary's wall rupture, allowing the ovum to escape and
enter the Fallopian tube. There it travels toward the uterus, pushed along by movements of cilia on
the inner lining of the tubes. This trip takes hours or days. If the ovum is fertilized while in the
Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in the endometrium when it reaches the uterus, which
signals the beginning of pregnancy.
5.Ovaries:The ovaries are small, paired organs that are located near the lateral walls of the pelvic
cavity. These organs are responsible for the production of the ova and the secretion of hormones.
ovaries are the place inside the female body where ova or eggs are produced. The process by which
the ovum is released is called ovulation. The speed of ovulation is periodic and impacts directly to
the length of a menstrual cycle.
After ovulation, the ovum is captured by the oviduct, after traveling down the oviduct to the uterus,
occasionally being fertilized on its way by an incoming sperm, leading to pregnancy and the
eventual birth of a new human being.
The Fallopian tubes are often called the oviducts and they have small hairs (cilia) to help the egg cell
travel
Respiration
In physiology, respiration (often mistaken with breathing) is defined as the transport of oxygen from
the outside air to the cells within tissues, and the transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction.
This is in contrast to the biochemical definition of respiration, which refers to cellular respiration:
the metabolic process by which an organism obtains energy by reacting oxygen with glucose to give
water, carbon dioxide and ATP (energy). Although physiologic respiration is necessary to sustain
cellular respiration and thus life in animals, the processes are distinct: cellular respiration takes place
in individual cells of the animal, while physiologic respiration concerns the bulk flow and transport of
metabolites between the organism and the external environment.
In unicellular organisms, simple diffusion is sufficient for gas exchange: every cell is constantly
bathed in the external environment, with only a short distance for gases to flow across. In contrast,
complex multicellular animals such as humans have a much greater distance between the environment
and their innermost cells, thus, a respiratory system is needed for effective gas exchange. The
respiratory system works in concert with a circulatory system to carry gases to and from the tissues.
In air-breathing vertebrates such as humans, respiration of oxygen includes four stages:
a.Ventilation, moving of the ambient air into and out of the alveoli of the lungs.
b.Pulmonary gas exchange, exchange of gases between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries.
C.Gas transport, movement of gases within the pulmonary capillaries through the circulation to the
peripheral capillaries in the organs, and then a movement of gases back to the lungs along the same
circulatory rout
d.Peripheral gas exchange, exchange of gases between the tissue capillaries and the tissues or
organs, impacting the cells composing these and mitochondria within the cells.
Note that ventilation and gas transport require energy to power a mechanical pump (the heart) and the
muscles of respiration, mainly the diaphragm. In heavy breathing, energy is also required to power
additional respiratory muscles such as the intercostal muscles. The energy requirement for ventilation
and gas transport is in contrast to the passive diffusion taking place in the gas exchange steps.
Respiratory behavior is correlated to the cardiovascular behavior to control the gaseous exchange
between cells and blood. Both behaviors are intensified by exercise of the body. However, respiratory
is highly voluntary compared to cardiovascular activity which is totally involuntary.
1.Aquatic respiration:Aquatic respiration is the process whereby an aquatic animal obtains oxygen
from water.
Earth's natural bodies of water have a low oxygen concentration—much lower than the level of
oxygen in air at the Earth's surface. Smaller organisms can obtain sufficient oxygen through the skin
(e.g. flatworms), but larger organisms require special structures to collect enough oxygen to sustain
life. This oxygen comes from molecules of oxygen gas (O2) dissolved in the water. The oxygen atom
present in the water molecule (H2O) is not suitable for respiration.
Fish have developed gills for respiration which have:
• large surface area which is needed for more oxygen to get in.
• high blood flow
• short diffusion distances
• contain 4 gill arches (Bony fishes), two gill arches (Cartilaginous fish) or 7 gill
baskets (Lampreys) on each side of the fish's head
• each gill arch has 2 rows (hemibranchs) of gill filaments
• each gill filament has many lamellae
2.Buccal pumping:Buccal pumping is a method of respiration in which the animal moves the floor
of the mouth in a rhythmic manner that is externally apparent.This method has several stages. These
will be described for an animal starting with lungs in a deflated state: First, the glottis (opening to
the lungs) is closed, and the nostrils are opened. The floor of the mouth is then depressed (lowered),
drawing air in. The nostrils are then closed, the glottis opened, and the floor of mouth raised, forcing
the air into the lungs for gas exchange. To deflate the lungs, the process is reversed.
Gular pumping refers to the same process, but accomplished by expanding and contracting the entire
throat to pump air, rather than just relying upon the mouth.
This method of ventilation is inefficient, but is nonetheless used by all air-breathing amphibians and
gular pumping is utilized to a varying extent by various reptile species. Mammals, in contrast, use
the thoracic diaphragm to inflate and deflate the lungs more directly.
Respiration organ
Respiratory organs (or breathing organs) are used by most, or all, animals to exchange the gases
necessary for their life function known as respiration. These organs come in many forms, some of
them apparently having independently evolved:
1.skin – some aquatic,or some amphibians (ex. frogs) or small terrestrial (some of the smallest
spiders and mites, for example), animals can breathe simply by exchanging gas through the
surface of their body
2.gill – many aquatic, and a few smaller terrestrial, animals use gills to breathe. Even land animals
can do this, as with isopods like the woodlice that probably can be found living under rocks in a
yard. Gills are simply layers of tissue adapted specifically to gas exchange.
3.book lung – Some spiders, scorpions, and other arthropods still use primitive book lungs,
essentially gills adapted for land use, in their respiration. These are simply tissue with many
wrinkles to increase their surface area.
4.Branchiostegal lung - some crabs, coconut crabs in particular, use this gill-like lung
5.Labyrinth organ – A secondary breathing organ specific to the labyrinth fish, essentially an
enclosed maze of tissue, evolved from a niche in their gill structure.
6.Invertebrate trachea – tubes evolved by many arthropods, possibly from book lungs, which
simply lead directly into their bodies through holes called spiracles, where their internal organs
generally absorb their own air. These can be very primitive, as with some spiders, or more
complex, ending with specialized air sacs, as with many insects.
7.lung – The lung is made up of muscle tissues, the cells inside the lung which collect the oxygen
in the air and pass it into the blood stream via veins and carbon dioxide passes out and that is
breathing respiratory.
8.diaphragm – a layer of muscular membrane located at the bottom of the thoracic cavity which in
responsible in adjusting the volume of the thoracic cavity.
Gas exchange in humans and other mammals
In humans and mammals, respiratory gas exchange is carried out by mechanisms of the heart and
lungs. Ventilation is the process of air movement into and out of the lungs. Once air enters the
lungs, diffusion of O2 and CO2 occurs in the alveoli. The oxygenated blood is then perfused
throughout the body where gas exchange occurs in the capillary bedsThe blood is subjected to a
transient electric field (QRS waves of the EKG) in the heart, which dissociates molecules of
different charge. The blood, being a polar fluid, aligns dipoles with the electric field, is released, and
then oscillates in a damped driven oscillation to form Y or Osborn Waves, V, U, and Y waves. The
electric field exposure and subsequent damped driven oscillation dissociate gas from hemoglobin,
primarily CO2, but more important, BPG, which has a higher affinity for hemoglobin than does
oxygen, due in part to its opposite charge. Completely-dissociated hemoglobin (which will even
effervesce if the electric field is too strong — the reason defibrillation joules are limited, to avoid
bubble emboli that may clog vessels in the lung) enters the lung in red blood cells ready to be
oxygenated. they also are very good and helpful.
Comparative anatomy and physiology
1.Horses:Horses are obligate nasal breathers which means that they are different from many other
mammals because they do not have the option of breathing through their mouths and must take in
oxygen through their noses.
2.Elephants:The elephant is the only animal known to have no pleural space. Rather, the parietal
and visceral pleura are both composed of dense connective tissue and joined to each other via loose
connective tissue. This lack of a pleural space, along with an unusually thick diaphragm, are thought
to be evolutionary adaptations allowing the elephant to remain underwater for long periods of time
while breathing through its trunk which emerges as a snorkel.
3.Birds:The respiratory system of birds differs significantly from that found in mammals, containing
unique anatomical features such as air sacs. The lungs of birds also do not have the capacity to
inflate as birds lack a diaphragm and a pleural cavity. Gas exchange in birds occurs between air
capillaries and blood capillaries, rather than in alveoli.
4.Reptiles:The anatomical structure of the lungs is less complex in reptiles than in mammals,
with reptiles lacking the very extensive airway tree structure found in mammalian lungs. Gas
exchange in reptiles still occurs in alveoli however, reptiles do not possess a diaphragm. Thus,
breathing occurs via a change in the volume of the body cavity which is controlled by contraction of
intercostal muscles in all reptiles except turtles. In turtles, contraction of specific pairs of flank
muscles governs inspiration or expiration.
5.Amphibians:Both the lungs and the skin serve as respiratory organs in amphibians. The skin of
these animals is highly vascularized and moist, with moisture maintained via secretion of mucus
from specialized cells. While the lungs are of primary importance to breathing control, the skin's
unique properties aid rapid gas exchange when amphibians are submerged in oxygen-rich water.
6.Fish:In most fish respiration takes place through gills.Lungfish, however, do possess one or two
lungs. The labyrinth fish have developed a special organ that allows them to take advantage of the
oxygen of the air, but is not a true lung.
Anatomy in invertebrates
1.Insects:Air enters the respiratory systems of most insects through a series of external openings
called spiracles. These external openings, which act as muscular valves in some insects, lead to the
internal respiratory system, a densely networked array of tubes called trachea. The scientific
tracheal system within an individual is composed of interconnecting transverse and longitudinal
tracheae which maintain equivalent pressure throughout the system. These tracheae branch
repeatedly, eventually forming tracheoles, which are blind-ended, water-filled compartments only
one micrometer in diameter. It is at this level of the tracheoles that oxygen is delivered to the cells
for respiration.
Insects were once believed to exchange gases with the environment continuously by the simple
diffusion of gases into the tracheal system. More recently, however, large variation in insect
ventilatory patterns have been documented and insect respiration appears to be highly variable.
Some small insects do demonstrate continuous respiration and may lack muscular control of the
spiracles. Others, however, utilize muscular contraction of the abdomen along with coordinated
spiracle contraction and relaxation to generate cyclical gas exchange patterns. The most extreme
form of these patterns is termed discontinuous gas exchange cycles (DGC).
2.Mollusks:Mollusks generally possess gills that allow exchange of oxygen from an aqueous
environment into the circulatory system. These animals also possess a heart that pumps blood which
contains hemocyaninine as its oxygen-capturing molecule. Hence, this respiratory system is similar
to that of vertebrate fish. The respiratory system of gastropods can include either gills or a lung.
Physiology in mammals
1.Ventilation:In respiratory physiology, ventilation (or ventilation rate) is the rate at which gas
enters or leaves the lung. It is categorised under the following definitions: Measurement Symbol
Equation Description Minute ventilation = tidal volume * respiratory rate[1][2] the total volume of
gas entering the lungs per minute. Alveolar ventilation = (tidal volume - dead space) * respiratory
rate [1] the volume of gas per unit time that reaches the alveoli, the respiratory portions of the lungs
where gas exchange occurs. Dead space ventilation = dead space * respiratory rate[3] is the volume
of gas per unit time that does not reach these respiratory portions, but instead remains in the airways
(trachea, bronchi, etc.).
2.Control:Ventilation occurs under the control of the autonomic nervous system from parts of the
brain stem, the medulla oblongata and the pons. This area of the brain forms the respiration
regulatory center, a series of interconnected brain cells within the lower and middle brain stem
which coordinate respiratory movements. The sections are the pneumotaxic center, the apneaustic
center, and the dorsal and ventral respiratory groups. This section is especially sensitive during
infancy, and the neurons can be destroyed if the infant is dropped and/or shaken violently. The result
can be death due to "shaken baby syndrome".
3.Inhalation:Inhalation is initiated by the diaphragm and supported by the external intercostal
muscles. Normal resting respirations are 10 to 18 breaths per minute, with a time period of 2
seconds. During vigorous inhalation (at rates exceeding 35 breaths per minute), or in approaching
respiratory failure, accessory muscles of respiration are recruited for support. These consist of
sternocleidomastoid, platysma, and the scalene muscles of the neck. Pectoral muscles and
latissimus dorsi are also accessory muscles.
Under normal conditions, the diaphragm is the primary driver of inhalation. When the diaphragm
contracts, the ribcage expands and the contents of the abdomen are moved downward. This results
in a larger thoracic volume and negative pressure (with respect to atmospheric pressure) inside the
thorax. As the pressure in the chest falls, air moves into the conducting zone. Here, the air is filtered,
warmed, and humidified as it flows to the lungs.
During forced inhalation, as when taking a deep breath, the external intercostal muscles and
accessory muscles aid in further expanding the thoracic cavity.
4.Exhalation:Exhalation is generally a passive process; however, active or forced exhalation is
achieved by the abdominal and the internal intercostal muscles. During this process air is forced
or exhaled out.
The lungs have a natural elasticity: as they recoil from the stretch of inhalation, air flows back out
until the pressures in the chest and the atmosphere reach equilibrium
During forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory muscles including the abdominal
muscles and internal intercostal muscles, generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air
out of the lungs
Non-respiratory functions
1.Lung Defense Mechanisms:Airway epithelial cells can secrete a variety of molecules that aid in
lung defense. Secretory immunoglobulins (IgA), collectins (including Surfactant A and D), defensins
and other peptides and proteases, reactive oxygen species, and reactive nitrogen species are all
generated by airway epithelial cells. These secretions can act directly as antimicrobials to help keep
the airway free of infection. Airway epithelial cells also secrete a variety of chemokines and
cytokines that recruit the traditional immune cells and others to site of infections.
2.Metabolic & Endocrine Functions of the Lungs:In addition to their functions in gas exchange,
the lungs have a number of metabolic functions. They manufacture surfactant for local use, as noted
above. They also contain a fibrinolytic system that lyses clots in the pulmonary vessels. They release
a variety of substances that enter the systemic arterial blood and they remove other substances from
the systemic venous blood that reach them via the pulmonary artery. Prostaglandins are removed
from the circulation, but they are also synthesized in the lungs and released into the blood when lung
tissue is stretched. The lungs also activate one hormone; the physiologically inactive decapeptide
angiotensin I is converted to the pressor, aldosterone-stimulating octapeptide angiotensin II in the
pulmonary circulation. The reaction occurs in other tissues as well, but it is particularly prominent in
the lungs. Large amounts of the angiotensin-converting enzyme responsible for this activation are
located on the surface of the endothelial cells of the pulmonary capillaries. The converting enzyme
also inactivates bradykinin. Circulation time through the pulmonary capillaries is less than 1 s, yet
70% of the angiotensin I reaching the lungs is converted to angiotensin II in a single trip through the
capillaries. Four other peptidases have been identified on the surface of the pulmonary endothelial
cells.
3.Vocalization:The movement of gas through the larynx, pharynx and mouth allows humans to
speak, or phonate. Vocalization, or singing, in birds occurs via the syrinx, an organ located at the
base of the trachea. The vibration of air flowing across the larynx (vocal chords), in humans, and the
syrinx, in birds, results in sound. Because of this, gas movement is extremely vital for communication
purposes.
4.Temperature control:Panting in dogs and some other animals provides a means of controlling
body temperature. This physiological response is used as a cooling mechanism.
5.Coughing and sneezing:Irritation of nerves within the nasal passages or airways, can induce
coughing and sneezing. These responses cause air to be expelled forcefully from the trachea or
nose, respectively. In this manner, irritants caught in the mucus which lines the respiratory tract
are expelled or moved to the mouth where they can be swallowed.
Respiration in plant
Plants use carbon dioxide gas in the process of photosynthesis, and exhale oxygen gas as waste.
The chemical equation of photosynthesis is 6 CO2 (carbon dioxide) and 6 H2O (water) and that
makes 6 O2 (oxygen) and C6H12O6 (glucose). Respiration is the opposite of that. However, plants also
sometimes respire as humans do, taking in oxygen and producing carbon dioxide.
Plant respiration is limited by the process of diffusion. Plants take in carbon dioxide through holes
on the undersides of their leaves known as stoma or pores. However, most plants require little air.
[
Most plants have relatively few living cells outside of their surface because air (which is required
for metabolic content) can penetrate only skin deep. However, most plants are not involved in highly
aerobic activities, and thus have no need of these living cells.
Evolutionary history of life
The basic timeline is a 4.5 billion year old Earth, with (very approximate) dates:
• 3.8 billion years of simple cells (prokaryotes),
• 3 billion years of photosynthesis,
• 2 billion years of complex cells (eukaryotes),
• 1 billion years of multicellular life,
• 600 million years of simple animals,
• 570 million years of arthropods (ancestors of insects, arachnids and crustaceans),
• 550 million years of complex animals,
• 500 million years of fish and proto-amphibians,
• 475 million years of land plants,
• 400 million years of insects and seeds,
• 360 million years of amphibians,
• 300 million years of reptiles,
• 200 million years of mammals,
• 150 million years of birds,
• 130 million years of flowers,
• 65 million years since the non-avian dinosaurs died out,
• 2.5 million years since the appearance of the genus Homo,
• 200,000 years since humans started looking like they do today,
• 25,000 years since Neanderthals died out
[A] PHANEROZOIC EON: The Phanerozoic Eon, literally the "period of well-displayed life",
marks the appearance in the fossil record of abundant, shell-forming and/or trace-making
organisms. It is subdivided into three eras….
1. Cenozoic Era
2. Mesozoic Era
3. Paleozoic Era
which are divided by major mass extinctions
1. Cenozoic Era: ("recent life")- Present-65.5 Million Years. The Cenozoic Era is divided into the
Tertiary (65 to 2Ma) and Quaternary (2 Mya to present) periods. This ice age started during the
Quaternary, and is in evidence today, as ice caps remain at both poles. During this period, climate
has fluctuated between times of relative warmth and frigidity
Date Event
65.5 Ma The Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event eradicates about half of all
animal species, including mosasaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs, ammonites, belemnites
rudist and inoceramid bivalves, most planktic foraminifers, and all of the dinosaurs excluding
their descendants the birds
From 65 Ma Rapid dominance of conifers and ginkgos in high latitudes, along with mammals
becoming the dominant species. First psammobiid bivalves. Rapid diversification
in ants.
63 Ma Evolution of the creodonts, an important group of carnivorous mammals.
60 Ma Diversification of large, flightless birds. Earliest true primates, along with the
first semelid bivalves, edentates, carnivorous and lipotyphlan mammals, and
owls. The ancestors of the carnivorous mammals (miacids) were alive.
56 Ma Gastornis, a large, flightless bird appears in the fossil record, becoming an apex
predator at the time.
55 Ma Modern bird groups diversify (first song birds, parrots, loons, swifts,
woodpeckers), first whale (Himalayacetus), earliest rodents, lagomorphs,
armadillos, appearance of sirenians, proboscideans, perissodactyl and artiodactyl
mammals in the fossil record. Angiosperms diversify. The ancestor (according to
theory) of the species in Carcharodon, the early mako shark Isurus hastalis, is alive.
52 Ma First bats appear (Onychonycteris).
50 Ma Peak diversity of dinoflagellates and nanofossils, increase in diversity of
anomalodesmatan and heteroconch bivalves, brontotheres, tapirs, rhinoceroses, and
camels appear in the fossil record, diversification of primates.
40 Ma Modern type butterflies and moths appear. Extinction of Gastornis. Basilosaurus,
one of the first of the giant whales, appeared in the fossil record.
37 Ma First Nimravid carnivores ("False Saber-toothed Cats") - these species are
unrelated to modern-type felines
35 Ma Grasses evolve from among the angiosperms; grasslands begin to expand. Slight
increase in diversity of cold-tolerant ostracods and foraminifers, along with major
extinctions of gastropods, reptiles, and amphibians. Many modern mammal groups
begin to appear: first glyptodonts, ground sloths, dogs, peccaries, and the first
eagles and hawks. Diversity in toothed and baleen whales.
33 Ma Evolution of the thylacinid marsupials (Badjcinus).
30 Ma First balanids and eucalypts, extinction of embrithopod and brontothere mammals,
earliest pigs and cats.
28 Ma Paraceratherium appears in the fossil record, the largest terrestrial mammal that
ever lived.
25 Ma First deer.
20 Ma First giraffes and giant anteaters, increase in bird diversity.
15 Ma Mammut appears in the fossil record, first bovids and kangaroos, diversity in
Australian megafauna.
10 Ma Grasslands and savannas are established, diversity in insects, especially ants and
termites, horses increase in body size and develop high-crowned teeth, major
diversification in grassland mammals and snakes.
6.5 Ma First hominin (Sahelanthropus).
6 Ma Australopithecines diversify (Orrorin, Ardipithecus)
5 Ma First tree sloths and hippopotami, diversification of grazing herbivores, large
carnivorous mammals, burrowing rodents, kangaroos, birds, and small carnivores,
vultures increase in size, decrease in the number of perissodactyl mammals.
Extinction of Nimravid carnivores
4.8 Ma Mammoths appear in the fossil record.
4 Ma Evolution of Australopithecus, Stupendemys appears in the fossil record as the
largest freshwater turtle.
3 Ma The Great American Interchange, where various land and freshwater faunas
migrated between North and South America. Armadillos, opossums,
hummingbirds, and vampire bats traveled to North America while horses, tapirs,
saber-toothed cats, and deer entered South America. The first short-faced bears
(Arctodus) appear.
2.7 Ma Evolution of Paranthropus
2.5 Ma The earliest species of Smilodon evolve
2 Ma First members of the genus Homo appear in the fossil record. Diversification of
conifers in high latitudes. The eventual ancestor of cattle, Bos primigenius evolves
in India
1.7 Ma Extinction of australopithecines.
1.2 Ma Evolution of Homo antecessor. The last members of Paranthropus die out.
600 ka Evolution of Homo heidelbergensis
350 ka Evolution of Neanderthals
300 ka Gigantopithecus, a giant relative of the orangutan dies out from Asia
200 ka Anatomically modern humans appear in Africa. Around 50,000 years before
present they start colonising the other continents, replacing the Neanderthals in
Europe and other hominins in Asia.
40 ka The last of the giant monitor lizards (Megalania) die out
30 ka Extinction of Neanderthals
15 ka The last Woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta) are believed to have gone extinct
11 ka The giant short-faced bears (Arctodus) vanish from North America, with the last
Giant Ground Sloths dying out. All Equidae become extinct in North America
10 ka The Holocene Epoch starts 10,000[42] years ago after the Late Glacial Maximum.
The last mainland species of Woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) die out,
as does the last Smilodon species
6 ka Small populations of American Mastodon die off in places like Utah and Michigan
4500 ya The last members of a dwarf race of Woolly Mammoths vanish from Wrangel
Island near Alaska
384 ya (1627) The last recorded wild Aurochs die out

75 ya (1936) The Thylacine goes extinct in a Tasmanian zoo, the last member of the family
Thylacinidae
2.Mesozoic Era -68. Million years– 251Million years
During this Era, birds, mammals and flowering plants emerged. True primates, Order Primates
evolve 85 million years

Date Event
From 251.4 Ma The Mesozoic Marine Revolution begins: increasingly well-adapted and diverse
predators pressurise sessile marine groups; the "balance of power" in the oceans
shifts dramatically as some groups of prey adapt more rapidly and effectively than
others.
245 Ma Earliest ichthyosaurs.
240 Ma Increase in diversity of gomphodont cynodonts and rhynchosaurs.
225 Ma Earliest dinosaurs (prosauropods), first cardiid bivalves, diversity in cycads,
bennettitaleans, and conifers. First teleost fishes.
215 Ma First mammals (e.g. Eozostrodon), minor vertebrate extinctions occur
220 Ma Eoraptor, among the earliest dinosaurs, appeared in the fossil record 230 million
years ago.
Gymnosperm forests dominate the land; herbivores grow to huge sizes in order to
accommodate the large guts necessary to digest the nutrient-poor plants.[first flies and
turtles (Odontochelys). First Coelophysoid dinosaurs
200 Ma The first accepted evidence for viruses (at least, the group Geminiviridae) exists.
Viruses are still poorly understood and may have arisen before "life" itself, or may
be a more recent phenomenon. Major extinctions in terrestrial vertebrates and
large amphibians. Earliest examples of Ankylosaurian dinosaurs
195 Ma First pterosaurs with specialized feeding (Dorygnathus). First sauropod dinosaurs.
Diversification in small, ornithischian dinosaurs: heterodontosaurids,
fabrosaurids, and scelidosaurids.
190 Ma Pliosaurs appear in the fossil record. First lepidopteran insects (Archaeolepis),
hermit crabs, modern starfish, irregular echinoids, corbulid bivalves, and
tubulipore bryozoans. Extensive development of sponge reefs.
176 Ma First members of the Stegosauria group of dinosaurs
170 Ma Earliest salamanders, newts, cryptoclidid & elasmosaurid plesiosaurs, and
cladotherian mammals. Cynodonts become extinct while sauropod dinosaurs
diversify.
165 Ma First rays and glycymeridid bivalves.
161 Ma Ceratopsian dinosaurs appear in the fossil record (Yinlong)
155 Ma First blood-sucking insects (ceratopogonids), rudist bivalves, and cheilosome
bryozoans. Archaeopteryx, a possible ancestor to the birds, appears in the fossil
record, along with triconodontid and symmetrodont mammals. Diversity in
stegosaurian and theropod dinosaurs.
130 Ma The rise of the Angiosperms: These flowering plants boast structures that attract
insects and other animals to spread pollen. This innovation causes a major burst of
animal evolution through co-evolution. First freshwater pelomedusid turtles.
120 Ma Oldest fossils of heterokonts, including both marine diatoms and silicoflagellates.
115 Ma First monotreme mammals.
110 Ma First hesperornithes, toothed diving birds. Earliest limopsid, verticordiid, and
thyasirid bivalves.
106 Ma Spinosaurus, the largest theropod dinosaur, appears in the fossil record.
100 Ma Earliest bees.

90 Ma Extinction of ichthyosaurs. Earliest snakes and nuculanid bivalves. Large

diversification in angiosperms: magnoliids, rosids, hamamelidids, monocots, and
ginger. Earliest examples of ticks.
80 Ma First ants and termites.
70 Ma Multituberculate mammals increase in diversity. First yoldiid bivalves.
68 Ma Tyrannosaurus, the largest terrestrial predator of North America appears in the
fossil record. First species of Triceratops
2.1CRETACEOUS PERIOD: 65 Million Years to 144 Million Years... Dominance by
Dinosaurs, but with rapid extinction at the end of this period during the Cretaceous mass extinction a
meteorite impact. Tyrannosaurus (& last dinosaurs). Early mammals with primitive characteristics
(eg. primitive kangaroos 135 Mya) and first primates. First modern birds and modern
fishes. Insectivore mammals like Plesiadapis and Purgatorius evolve as tree dwelling creatures
125 Million Years. Angiosperm or FLOWERING PLANTS with covered seeds emerge 125 to130
Million Years and increase in dominance
2.1. CRETACEOUS PERIOD FOSSILS
• Image of almost complete Parasaurolophus sp.... This is a duckbilled dinosaur
(hadrosaur). Its breathing passages passed through its unusual head crest and it is believed that they
made various trumpeting noises to communicate. Males and females had different crest shapes, so a
form of sexual selection may have been involved inthe evolution of these breathing structures
• Image of 9 - 11 metres long dinosaur Iguanodon… An early Cretaceous bipedal,
ornithopod that had efficient plant chewing teeth. Ornithopods were a successful, abundant and
diverse group found across musch of Europe.
• Image of Gallimimus sp...A bipedal dinosaur from the Gobi desert in Mongolia
• Image of Saurolophus sp...This is the skull of a young duck-billed dinosaur, showing
herbivore dentition and a small crest.
• Image of Protoceratops sp… These herbivorous dinosaurs looked a bit like giant
chameleons, but with parrot beaks and a crest around the neck.
2.2. JURASSIC PERIOD: 144 Million Years to 208 Million Years… Pangea continues to break
up 200 Million Years .AGE OF THE DINOSAURS . Dolphin like marine reptiles (Plesiosaurus sp.
rear paddle) , early birds ( Archaeopteryx ) (145-150 Million Years), carnivorous Allosaurus and
conifer eating Brontosaurus. First birds appear, coniferous trees, diversification of reptiles.
Gymnosperm plant forests emerge. Bony fishes common (image of bony fish.) in the ocean. Insects
common. Archaic mammals, small shrew like nocturnal creatures evolve, but dinosaurs dominate the
earth and mammals do not diversify much. Therapsid ancestors to mammals become extinct. Cone
bearing trees plentiful. An early placental mammal- Eomaia evolves 150 Million Years, with young
born alive, and nourished by a placenta
2.3TRIASSIC PERIOD: 208 Million Years to 245 Million Years…Emergence of two groups of
dinosaurs amongst a diversity of reptiles. Bony fish called teleosts rise in dominance. Cycad and
conifer plants common. Very first warm-blooded mammals emerge 210-230 Mya. Kuehneutherium
is warm blooded and the size of a rat. It may have laid eggs like monotremes. Diverse and plentiful
insect types. Therapsids (mammal-like reptiles) dominant. Protosuchia, crocodile ancestor
(Buffetaut, 1979) around 230 Million Years. Cone bearing trees plentiful.
A mass extinction event occurs around 210 mya. Seed production by gymnosperms and seed ferns
proved an adaptive advantage over other plant types. Frogs and turtles evolve. Frightening fish like
predator reptiles with paddle-like limbs frequent the ocean. Pangea, the super-continent breaks up to
form the continents that we know today. Bees evolve 225 Million Years.

3. Paleozoic Era: 251.0Million years–542 Million years

Date Event
 535 Ma Major diversification of living things in the oceans: chordates, arthropods (e.g.
trilobites, crustaceans), echinoderms, mollusks, brachiopods, foraminifers and
radiolarians, etc.
530 Ma The first known footprints on land date to 530 Ma, indicating that early animal
explorations may have predated the development of terrestrial plants.
525 Ma Earliest graptolites.
510 Ma First cephalopods (Nautiloids) and chitons.
505 Ma Fossilization of the Burgess Shale.
485 Ma First vertebrates with true bones (jawless fishes).
450 Ma Land arthropod burrows (millipedes) appear, along with the first complete conodonts
and echinoids.
440 Ma First agnathan fishes: Heterostraci, Galeaspida, and Pituriaspida.
434 Ma The first primitive plants move onto land, having evolved from green algae living along
the edges of lakes. They are accompanied by fungi, which may have aided the
colonization of land through symbiosis.
420 Ma Earliest ray-finned fishes, trigonotarbid arachnids, and land scorpions.
410 Ma First signs of teeth in fish. Earliest nautiid nautiloids, lycophytes, and trimerophytes.
395 Ma First lichens, stoneworts. Earliest harvestman, mites, hexapods (springtails), and
ammonoids.
363 Ma By the start of the Carboniferous Period, the Earth begins to be recognisable. Insects
roamed the land and would soon take to the skies; sharks swam the oceans as top
predatorsand vegetation covered the land, with seed-bearing plants and forests soon to
flourish.
Four-limbed tetrapods gradually gain adaptations which will help them occupy a
terrestrial life-habit.
360 Ma First crabs and ferns. Land flora dominated by seed ferns.
350 Ma First large sharks, ratfishes, and hagfish.
340 Ma Diversification of amphibians.
330 Ma First amniote vertebrates (Paleothyris).
305 Ma Earliest diapsid reptiles (e.g. Petrolacosaurus).
280 Ma Earliest beetles, seed plants and conifers diversify while lepidodendrids and
sphenopsids decrease. Terrestrial temnospondyl amphibians and pelycosaurs (e.g.
Dimetrodon) diversify in species.
251.4 Ma The Permian-Triassic extinction event eliminates over 90-95% of marine species.
Terrestrial organisms were not as seriously affected as the marine biota. This "clearing
of the slate" may have led to an ensuing diversification, but life on land took 30M years
to completely recover.
3.1.PERMIAN PERIOD (Red Sandstone): 245 Million Years to 286 Million Years:… Reptiles such as Dimetrodon
and many others begin to dominate and replace amphibians. Fish and amphibians still plentiful. Insects diversify. Many
plant & animal groups. Reptile-like therapsid ancestors to mammals evolve. The oldest mammal fossil, 260 million
years old, evolve in the Karoo region of Southern Africa. Their fossil record reflects six mass extinction events in eight
million years as evidence of large climatic fluctuations. This process of natural selection led to small warm-blooded
animals better adapted to cold conditions. They also evolved more complicated and specialised teeth and jaws and more
efficient respiratory systems. Pelycosaurs dominant. Cycads and conifers common. A mass extinction event occurs
250 Million Years at the end of the Permian, killing 90 to 96% of all species! Mammal-like reptiles survive, eventually
to evolve into true mammals. Two groups evolve from diapsid reptiles, the lepidosaurs (includes lizards and snakes), and the
archosaurs (dinosaurs and crocodiles). Coniferous floras of the Northern Hemisphere survive into the Triassic.
3.2.CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD (the coal strata formerly called the Coal Measures): 286 Million
Years to 360 Million Years… First reptiles appear, becoming the first vertebrates to live fully independent
of water (310 Million Years.). These early reptiles gave rise to the synapsid reptiles (e.g. Dimetrodon),
which became abundant by the Permian. Amphibians emerge and diversify (300-350 Million Years),
producing creatures more than 20 feet long. Seed ferns, primitive conifers, scale trees and other seed bearing
plants flourished. Coal beds typify this period. These resulted from the huge tropical and subtropical forests
that covered the massive continent of Pangea. Primitive insects, ancient grasshoppers, mayflies and roaches
were common (winged insects, 300 Million Years).
By this time five digit hands and feet, hinge like ankle bones and skull features typical of modern forms
had evolved. No birds or mammals roamed the earth! Climax of shell crushing sharks. Amphibians
dominate land Features that had evolved by 350 Million Years includes jaws, internal pectoral and
pelvic girdles, bony skeletons, lobed fins and a pattern of bony skull plates the same as in terrestrial
animals. Coelacanths appeared about 350 million years ago.
3.3.DEVONIAN PERIOD (Red Sandstone): 360 Million Years to 408 Million Years… AGE OF
FISHES: A great variety of fish species are represented in the fossil record. Fish such as Dipterus,
trilobites, plants, first amphibians (following a doubling in the number of chromosomes of fish) (Wills,
1991), snails, many fish species. First Amphibians such as Ichthyostega evolve 400 Million Years.
First bony fish and shark (375 Million Years) species emerge. Terrestrial life becomes abundant and
diverse. Springtails are among the first land insects that evolve (350-360 Million Years). The second
mass extinction event (the late Frasnian) occurs toward the end if this period (370 Million Years.),
killing off most fish (Gore, 1989). Tetrapods emerge, such as the 370 million year old Elginerpeton
and the 365 million year old Hynerpeton. Earliest Reptile likeHylonomusemerge 360 Million Years.
3.4. SILURIAN PERIOD: 408 Million Years to 438 Million Years: First traces of land life as plants
and animals. By 430million years waxy-coated algae begin to live on land. Lung fish with jaws, coral.
Land plants include scale trees and ferns that reproduce by spores. There are no seed bearing plants.
Millipedes emerge 420 Million years as one of the first land animals. Instects appear on the land.
Lobed fin, jawed fish such as Cheirolepis evolve.
3.5.ORDOVICIAN PERIOD: 438 Million Years to 505 Million Years….First fish such as
armoured ostracoderm fishes. Dominance by a diversity of invertebrates. The first recorded mass
extinction event occurs, destroying about 75% of animal species. Trilobites, corals and molluscs
common.
3.6.CAMBRIAN PERIOD: 505Million Years to 543 Million Years …No terrestrial life! Spriggina
(an annelid). Grazing by burrowing animals leads to a decline of Stromatolites. Marine invertebrate
groups and Protozoa. All modern phyla evolved by this time. Foundation plans for higher animals
include true tissues, a form of embryo development called gastrulation, three tissue layers, body
cavities, blood circulatory systems and segmentation. Most ancient vertebrates emerge, i.e., first fish &
chordates (Valentine, 1978). The most ancient chordate yet discovered is the 525 million year-old
Yunnanozoon lividum (Nash, 1995). Macroscopic fossils first appear, first as shells of calcium
carbonate and then as bones of calcium phosphate (Mason, 1992). Trilobites dominate fossil record.
545 Mya sees the Cambrian explosion of hard-bodied organisms. 517 Million Years - Burgess Shale
formation. Early Vertebrates- jawless fish such as Arandaspis 510 Million Years

[B]PROTEROZOIC EON ("earlier life"):550 MillionYears to 2500 MillionYears…2.3 billion

years ago most of the planet's seven continents, then concentrated around the equator, were glaciated.
Similar glaciations are found 600 and 750 million years ago ( Neoproterozoic Era). Stromatolites
are common in this era0.6 billion years ago, the present day continents of Antarctica, Africa, South
America, India, China and Australia and the units of Laurasia (North America, Siberia and Europe)
form the super continent of Gondwanaland. Invertebrates and vertebrates diverge shortly before the
beginning of the Cambrian period.

Date Event
By 1850 Ma Eukaryotic cells appear. Eukaryotes contain membrane-bound organelles
With diverse functions, probably derived from prokaryotes engulfing each other via
phagocytosis.
By 1200 Ma Sexual reproduction first appears, increasing the rate of evolution.
1200 Ma Simple multicellular organisms evolve, mostly consisting of cell colonies of limited
complexity.
850–630 Ma A global glaciation may have occurred. Opinion is divided on whether it
Increased or decreased biodiversity or the rate of evolution.
580–542 Ma The Ediacaran biota represent the first large, complex multicellular organisms
- although their affinities remain a subject of debate
580–500 Ma Most modern phyla of animals begin to appear in the fossil record during the
Cambrian explosion.
580–540 Ma The accumulation of atmospheric oxygen allows the formation of an ozone
layer. This blocks ultraviolet radiation, permitting the colonisation of the land.

560 Ma Earliest fungi

[C].ARCHAEAN EON (ARCHAEOZOIC): 2500Million Years TO 3800 Million Years…

Date Event
3500 Ma Lifetime of the last universal ancestor; the split between bacteria and archaea
occurs.
Bacteria develop primitive forms of photosynthesis which at first do not produce
oxygen. These organisms generate ATP by exploiting a proton gradient, a mechanism
still used in virtually all organisms.
3000 Ma Photosynthesizing cyanobacteria evolve; they use water as a reducing agent,
thereby producing oxygen as waste product. More recent research, however,
suggests a later time of 2700 Ma. The oxygen initially oxidizes dissolved iron in
the oceans, creating iron ore. The oxygen concentration in the atmosphere
subsequently rises, acting as a poison for many bacteria. The moon is still very
close to the earth and causes tides 1,000 feet (305 m) high. The earth is
continually wracked by hurricane force winds. These extreme mixing influences
are thought to stimulate evolutionary processes.
2700 Ma Timeframe of cyanobacteria evolution suggested by more recent research.

[D] HADEAN EON: 3800 Million Years to 4800 Million Years…

Date Event
4600 Ma The planet Earth forms from the accretion disc
revolving around the young Sun.
4500 Ma According to one plausible theory, the planet
Earth and the planet Theia collide, sending a very
large number of moonlets into orbit around the
young Earth. These moonlets eventually coalesce
to form the Moon. The gravitational pull of the
new Moon stabilises the Earth's fluctuating axis of
rotation and sets up the conditions in which life
formed
4100 Ma The surface of the Earth cools enough for the
crust to solidify. The atmosphere and the
oceans form. PAH infall and iron sulfide
synthesis along deep ocean platelet
boundaries, may have led to the RNA world of
competing organic compounds.
Between 4500 and 3500 Ma The earliest life appears, possibly derived from
self-reproducing RNA molecules. The
replication of these organisms requires
resources like energy, space, and smaller
building blocks, which soon become limited,
resulting in competition, with natural selection
favouring those molecules which are more
efficient at replication. DNA molecules then
take over as the main replicators and these
archaic genomes soon develop inside
enclosing membranes which provide a stable
physical and chemical environment conducive
to their replication: proto-cells.
3900 Ma Late Heavy Bombardment: peak rate of impact
events upon the inner planets by meteoroids.
This constant disturbance may have obliterated
any life that had evolved to that point, or
possibly not, as some early microbes could
have survived in hydrothermal vents below the
Earth's surface; or life might have been
transported to Earth by a meteoroid.
Somewhere between 3900 and 2500 Ma Cells resembling prokaryotes appear. These first
organisms are chemoautotrophs: they use carbon
dioxide as a carbon source and oxidize inorganic
materials to extract energy. Later, prokaryotes
evolve glycolysis, a set of chemical reactions that
free the energy of organic molecules such as
glucose and store it in the chemical bonds of ATP.
Glycolysis (and ATP) continues to be used in
almost all organisms, unchanged, to this day.

Evoloution of Man

Walking on foot

Important Delevopments Fire

A.anamensi Stone tool

s
 A.afarensis
(Lucy)
A.africanus

A.garhi
Pre-human Primates
A./P.aethiop

A./P.boise

A./P.robustu

H.rodolf
Human
H.habi

H.ergast

H.erectu
s
H.antecesso
6
GENUS H.heieberge
A:
Australopithecu
H.neanderthalensis
s
P: Paranthropus
H.sapie
Millions of Years Ago

6 5 4 3 2 1 Today

1. In 15 Million Years Hominidae (great apes) speciate from the ancestors of the gibbon (lesser apes).
2.In 13 Million Years Homininae ancestors speciate from the ancestors of the orangutan
Pierolapithecus catalaunicus is believed to be a common ancestor of humans and the great apes or at
least a species that brings us closer to a common ancestor than any previous fossil discovery.
Pierolapithecus had special adaptations for tree climbing, just as humans and other great apes do: a
wide, flat ribcage, a stiff lower spine, flexible wrists, and shoulder blades that lie along its back.
3. In 10 Million Years Hominini speciate from the ancestors of the gorillas.
4. In 7 Million Years Hominina speciate from the ancestors of the chimpanzees. The latest common
ancestor lived around the time of Sahelanthropus tchadensis, ca. 7 Million Years S. tchadensis is
sometimes claimed to be the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, but this is disputed.
The earliest known human ancestor post-dating the separation of the human and the chimpanzee lines
is Orrorin tugenensis (Millennium Man, Kenya; ca. 6 Ma). Both chimpanzees and humans have a
larynx that repositions during the first two years of life to a spot between the pharynx and the lungs,
indicating that the common ancestors have this feature, a precursor of speech.
5. In 4.4 Million Years Ardipithecus is a very early hominin genus (subfamily Homininae). Two
species are described in the literature: A. ramidus, which lived about 4.4 million years ago during the
early Pliocene, and A. kadabba, dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago (late Miocene). A.
ramidus had a small brain, measuring between 300 and 350 cm3. This is about the same size as modern
bonobo and female common chimpanzee brain, but much smaller than the brain of australopithecines
likes Lucy (~400 to 550 cm3) and slightly over a fifth the size of the modern Homo sapiens brain.
Ardipithecus was aboreal, meaning it lived largely in the forest where it competed with other forest
animals for food, including the contemporary ancestor for the chimpanzees. Ardipithecus was likely
bipedal as evidenced by its bowl shaped pelvis, the angle of its foramen magnum and its thinner
wrist bones, though its feet were still adapted for grasping rather than walking for long distances.
6. In 3.6 Million Years Some Australopithecus afarensis left human-like footprints on volcanic ash
in Laetoli, Kenya (Northern Tanzania) which provides strong evidence of full-time bipedalism.
Australopithecus afarensis lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. It is thought that A.
afarensis was ancestral to both the genus Australopithecus and the genus Homo. Compared to the
modern and extinct great apes, A. afarensis has reduced canines and molars, although they are still
relatively larger than in modern humans. A. afarensis also has a relatively small brain size (~380–
430 cm³) and a prognathic (i.e. projecting anteriorly) face. Australopithecines have been found in
Savannah environments and likely increased its diet to include meat from scavenging opportunities.
An analysis of Australopithecus africanus lower vertebrae suggests that females had changes to
support bipedalism even while pregnant.
7. In 3.5 Million Years Kenyanthropus platyops, a possible ancestor of Homo, emerges from the
Australopithecus genus
8. In 3 Million Years the bipedal australopithecines (a genus of the Hominina subtribe) evolve in the
savannas of Africa being hunted by Dinofelis. Loss of body hair takes place in the period 3-2 Million
Years, in parallel with the development of full bipedalism.
9. In 2.5 Million Years Appearance of Homo. Homo habilis is thought to be the ancestor of the lankier
and more sophisticated Homo ergaster. Lived side by side with Homo erectus until at least
1.44Million Years , making it highly unlikely that Homo erectus directly evolved out of Homo habilis.
First stone tools, beginning of the Lower Paleolithic.
10. In 1.8 Million Years Homo erectus evolves in Africa. Homo erectus would bear a striking
resemblance to modern humans, but had a brain about 74 percent of the size of modern man. Its
forehead is less sloping and the teeth are smaller. Other hominid designations such as Homo georgicus,
Homo ergaster, Homo pekinensis, Homo heidelbergensis are often put under the umbrella species
name of Homo erectus. Starting with Homo georgicus found in what is now the Republic of Georgia
dated at 1.8 Ma, the pelvis and backbone grew more human-like and gave H. georgicus the ability cover
very long distances in order to follow herds of other animals. This is the oldest fossil of a hominid
found (so far) outside of Africa. Control of fire by early humans is achieved 1.5 Million Years by
Homo ergaster. Homo ergaster reaches a height of around 1.9 metres (6.2 ft). Evolution of dark skin,
which is linked to the loss of body hair in human ancestors, is complete by 1.2 Million Years Homo
pekinensis first appears in Asia around 700 kiloannum but according to the theory of a recent African
origin of modern humans, they could not be human ancestors, but rather, were just a cousin offshoot
species from Homo ergaster. Homo heidelbergensis was a very large hominid that had a more
advanced complement of cutting tools and may have hunted big game such as horses
11. In 1.2 Million Years Homo antecessor is the common genetic ancestor of humans and
Neanderthal. At present estimate, humans have approximately 20,000–25,000 genes and share 99% of
their DNA with the now extinct Neanderthal and 95-99% of their DNA with their closest living
evolutionary relative, the chimpanzeesThe human variant of the FOXP2 gene (linked to the control of
speech) has been found to be identical in Neanderthals. It can therefore be deduced that Homo
antecessor would also have had the human FOXP2 gene.
12. In 600 kiloannum(is a unit of time equal to one thousand (103) years) Three 1.5 m (5 ft) tall
Homo heidelbergensis left footprints in powdery volcanic ash solidified in Italy. Homo
heidelbergensis is the common ancestor of both Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens. It is
morphologically very similar to Homo erectus but Homo heidelbergensis had a larger brain-case,
about 93% the size of that of Homo sapiens. The holotype of the species was tall, 1.8 m (6 ft) and
more muscular than modern humans. Beginning of the Middle Paleolithic
13.In 200 kiloannum Omo1, Omo2 (Ethiopia, Omo river) are the earliest fossil evidence for
archaic Homo sapiens, evolved from Homo heidelbergensis
14.In 160 kiloannum Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens idaltu) in Ethiopia, Awash River, Herto village,
practice mortuary rituals and butcher hippos. Potential earliest evidence of behavioral modernity
consistent with the continuity hypothesis including use of red ochre and fishing
15.In 150 kiloannum Mitochondrial Eve is a woman that lived in East Africa. She is the statistically
expected most recent female ancestor common to all mitochondrial lineages in humans alive today.
Note that there is no evidence of any characteristic or genetic drift that significantly differentiated her
from the contemporary social group she lived with at the time. Her ancestors were homo sapiens and
her mother had the same mtDNA.
16.In 70 kiloannum Appearance of mitochondrial haplogroup L2. Behavioral modernity according
to the "great leap forward" theory
17.In 60 kiloannum Y-chromosomal Adam lives in Africa. He is the most recent common ancestor
from whom all male human Y chromosomes are descended. Appearance of mitochondrial haplogroups
M and N, which participate in the migration out of Africa. Homo sapiens that leave Africa in this
wave start interbreeding with the Neanderthals they encounte
18.In 50 kiloannum Migration to South Asia. M168 mutation (carried by all non-African males).
Beginning of the Upper Paleolithic. mt-haplogroups U, K.
19.In 40 kiloannum Migration to Australia and Europe (CroMagnon).
20.In25 kiloannum The independent Neanderthal lineage dies out. Y-Haplogroup R2; mt-
haplogroups J, X.
21.In 12 kiloannum Beginning of the Mesolithic / Holocene. Y-Haplogroup R1a; mt-haplogroups V,
T. Evolution of light skin in Europeans (SLC24A5). Homo floresiensis dies out, leaving Homo sapiens
as the only living species of the genus Homo
Evoloution Theories

Cell biology
Cell biology (formerly cytology, from the Greek kytos, "container") is a scientific discipline that
studies cells – their physiological properties, their structure, the organelles they contain, interactions
with their environment, their life cycle, division and death. This is done both on a microscopic and
molecular level. Cell biology research encompasses both the great diversity of single-celled organisms
like bacteria and protozoa, as well as the many specialized cells in multicellular organisms such as humans.
Internal cellular structures
1.Chloroplasts 2.cilium 3. Cytoplasm 4. Cytoskeleton 5.Endoplasmic reticulum 6.flagellum
7. Golgi apparatus 8. mitochondrion 9. nucleus 10. Ribosomes 11.vesicle
1.Chloroplast:Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and other eukaryotic organisms that
conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts capture light energy to conserve free energy in the form of
ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH through a complex set of processes called photosynthesis.
The word chloroplast is derived from the Greek words chloros, which means green, and plastis which
means "the one who forms". Chloroplasts are members of a class of organelles known as plastids
Chloroplasts are one of the many different types of organelles in the plant cell. In general, they are
considered to have originated from cyanobacteria through endosymbiosis. This was first suggested
by Mereschkowsky in 1905 after an observation by Schimper in 1883 that chloroplasts closely
resemble cyanobacteria
chloroplasts are found only in plants and protista. The chloroplast is surrounded by a double-layered
composite membrane with an intermembrane space; further, it has reticulations, or many infoldings,
filling the inner spaces. The chloroplast has its own DNA, which codes for redox proteins involved in
electron transport in photosynthesis; this is termed the plastome.In green plants, chloroplasts are
surrounded by two lipid-bilayer membranes
Structure
Chloroplasts are observable as flat discs usually 2 to 10 micrometers in diameter and 1 micrometer
thick. In land plants, they are, in general, 5 μm in diameter and 2.3 μm thick. The chloroplast is
contained by an envelope that consists of an inner and an outer phospholipid membrane. Between
these two layers is the intermembrane space. A typical parenchyma cell contains about 10 to 100
chloroplasts.
The material within the chloroplast is called the stroma, corresponding to the cytosol of the original
bacterium, and contains one or more molecules of small circular DNA. It also contains ribosomes;
however most of its proteins are encoded by genes contained in the host cell nucleus, with the protein
products transported to the chloroplast.
Within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids, the sub-organelles, which are the site of photosynthesis.
The thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana (singular: granum). A thylakoid has a flattened disk
shape. Inside it is an empty area called the thylakoid space or lumen. Photosynthesis takes place on
the thylakoid membrane; as in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, it involves the coupling of
cross-membrane fluxes with biosynthesis via the dissipation of a proton electrochemical gradient
Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are antenna complexes, each of which consists of the light-
absorbing pigments, including chlorophyll and carotenoids, as well as proteins that bind the
pigments. This complex both increases the surface area for light capture, and allows capture of
photons with a wider range of wavelengths. The energy of the incident photons is absorbed by the
pigments and funneled to the reaction centre of this complex through resonance energy transfer.
Two chlorophyll molecules are then ionised, producing an excited electron, which then passes onto the
photochemical reaction centre.
2.cilium A cilium (plural cilia) is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Cilia are slender protuberances
that project from the much larger cell body. There are two types of cilia: motile cilia and non-motile, or
primary cilia, which typically serve as sensory organelles. In eukaryotes, cilia and flagella together make
up a group of organelles known as undulipodia.Eukaryotic cilia are structurally identical to Eukaryotic
flagella, although distinctions are sometimes made according to function and/or length.Cilia are rare in
most plants, occurring most notably in cycads.Cilia can be divided into primary and motile forms.
Motile ciliaLarger eukaryotes, such as mammals, have motile cilia as well. Motile cilia
are usually present on a cell's surface in large numbers and beat in coordinated
waves.
In humans, for example, motile cilia are found in the lining of the trachea (windpipe), where they
sweep mucus and dirt out of the lungs.
In female mammals, the beating of cilia in the Fallopian tubes moves the ovum from the ovary to
the uterus
Ciliates are microscopic organisms that possess motile cilia exclusively and use them for either
locomotion or to simply move liquid over their surface.
Structure:Inside cilia and flagella is a microtubule-based cytoskeleton called the axoneme. The
axoneme of primary cilia typically has a ring of nine outer microtubule doublets (called a 9+0
axoneme), and the axoneme of a motile cilium has two central microtubule singlets in addition to the
nine outer doublets (called a 9+2 axoneme). The axonemal cytoskeleton acts as a scaffolding for
various protein complexes and provides binding sites for molecular motor proteins such as kinesin
II, that help carry proteins up and down the microtubules
The building blocks of the cilia such as tubulins and other partially assembled axonemal proteins are
added to the ciliary tips which point away from the cell body. In most species bi-directional motility
called intraflagellar transport (IFT) plays an essential role to move these building materials
from the cell body to the assembly site. IFT also carries the disassembled material to be recycled
from the ciliary tip back to the cell body. By regulating the equilibrium between these two IFT
processes, the length of cilia can be maintained dynamically. The disassembly of the cilia requires the
action of the protein kinase Aurora A
Primary/immotile cilium:In humans, primary cilia are found on nearly every cell in the body.
In comparison to motile cilia, non-motile (or primary) cilia usually occur one per cell; nearly all
mammalian cells have a single non-motile primary cilium. In addition, examples of specialized primary
cilia can be found in human sensory organs such as the eye and the nose:
The outer segment of the rod photoreceptor cell in the human eye is connected to its cell body with a
specialized non-motile cilium. The dendritic knob of the olfactory neuron, where the odorant
receptors are located, also contains non-motile cilia (about 10 cilia per dendritic knob).
Although the primary cilium was discovered in 1898, it was largely ignored for a centuryThe
current scientific understanding of primary cilia views them as "sensory cellular antennae that
coordinate a large number of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to
ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation
3.cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is a thick liquid residing between the cell membrane holding organelles,
except for the nucleus. All the contents of the cells of prokaryote organisms (which lack a cell
nucleus) are contained within the cytoplasm. Within the cells of eukaryote organisms the contents of
the cell nucleus are separated from the cytoplasm, and are then called the nucleoplasm.
In eukaryotic cells also, the cytoplasm contains organelles, such as mitochondria, which are filled with
liquid that is kept separate from the rest of the cytoplasm by biological membranes. It is within the
cytoplasm that most cellular activities occur, such as many metabolic pathways including glycolysis,
and processes such as cell division. The inner, granular mass is called the endoplasm and the outer,
clear and glassy layer is called the cell cortex or the ectoplasm.
The part of the cytoplasm that is not held within organelles is called the cytosol. The cytosol is a complex
mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, dissolved molecules, and water that fills much of the volume of a cell.
The cytosol is a gel, with a network of fibers dispersed through water. Due to this network of pores and
high concentrations of dissolved macromolecules, such as proteins, an effect called macromolecular
crowding occurs and the cytosol does not act as an ideal solution. This crowding effect alters how the
components of the cytosol interact with each
other.Movement of the calcium ion in and out of the cytoplasm is thought to be a signalling activity for
metabolic processes

The cytoplasm has three major elements; the

1. cytosol,
2. organelles
3. Cytoplasmic inclusions.
1.Cytosol:The cytosol is the portion not within membrane-bound organelles. The cytosol is a
translucent fluid in which the plasmic elements are suspended. Cytosol makes up about 70% of the cell
volume and is composed of water, salts and organic molecules. The cytoplasm also contains the
protein filaments that make up the cytoskeleton, as well as soluble proteins and small structures
such as ribosomes, proteasomes, and the mysterious vault complexes. The inner, granular and more
fluid portion of the cytoplasm is referred to as endoplasm
2.Organelles:Organelles are membrane-bound "organs" inside the cell that have specific functions.
Some major organelles that are suspended in the cytosol are the mitochondria, the endoplasmic
reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, and in plant cells chloroplasts
3.Cytoplasmic inclusions:The inclusions are small particles of insoluble substances suspended in the
cytosol. A huge range of inclusions exist in different cell types, and range from crystals of calcium
oxalate or silicon dioxide in plants, to granules of energy-storage materials such as starch glycogen,
or polyhydroxybutyrate. A particularly widespread example are lipid droplets, which are spherical
droplets composed of lipids and proteins that are used in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes as a way of
storing lipids such as fatty acids and sterols. Lipid droplets make up much of the volume of
adipocytes, which are specialized lipid-storage cells, but they are also found in a range of other cell types.
4.Cytoskeleton The cytoskeleton (also CSK) is a cellular "scaffolding" or "skeleton" contained
within the cytoplasm and is made out of protein. The cytoskeleton is present in all cells; it was once
thought to be unique to eukaryotes, but recent research has identified the prokaryotic cytoskeleton.
It has structures such as flagella, cilia and lamellipodia and plays important roles in both intracellular
transport (the movement of vesicles and organelles, for example) and cellular division. The concept
of a protein mosaic that dynamically coordinated cytoplasmic biochemistry was proposed by Rudolph
Peters in 1929 while the term (cytosquelette, in French) was first introduced by French embryologist
Paul Wintrebert in 1931
Eukaryotic cells contain three main kinds of cytoskeletal filaments, which are microfilaments,
intermediate filaments, and microtubules. The cytoskeleton provides the cell with structure and
shape, and by excluding macromolecules from some of the cytosol it adds to the level of
macromolecular crowding in this compartment Cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and
intimately with cellular membranes.
Microfilaments:These are the thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton. They are composed of linear
polymers of actin subunits, and generate force by elongation at one end of the filament coupled with
shrinkage at the other, causing net movement of the intervening strand. They also act as tracks for the
movement of myosin molecules that attach to the microfilament and "walk" along them.
Intermediate filaments:These filaments, around 10 nanometers in diameter, are more stable (strongly
bound) than actin filaments, and heterogeneous constituents of the cytoskeleton. Although little work
has been done on intermediate filaments in plants, there is some evidence that cytosolic intermediate
filaments might be present, and plant nuclear filaments have been detected. Like actin filaments, they
function in the maintenance of cell-shape by bearing tension (microtubules, by contrast, resist
compression. It may be useful to think of micro- and intermediate filaments as cables, and of
microtubules as cellular support beams). Intermediate filaments organize the internal tridimensional
structure of the cell, anchoring organelles and serving as structural components of the nuclear lamina
and sarcomeres. They also participate in some cell-cell and cell-matrix junctions.
Different intermediate filaments are:
• made of vimentins, being the common structural support of many cells.
• made of keratin, found in skin cells, hair and nails.
• neurofilaments of neural cells.
• made of lamin, giving structural support to the nuclear envelope.
Microtubules:Microtubules are hollow cylinders about 23 nm in diameter (lumen = approximately
15nm in diameter), most commonly comprising 13 protofilaments which, in turn, are polymers of
alpha and beta tubulin. They have a very dynamic behaviour, binding GTP for polymerization.
They are commonly organized by the centrosome.
In nine triplet sets (star-shaped), they form the centrioles, and in nine doublets oriented about two
additional microtubules (wheel-shaped) they form cilia and flagella. The latter formation is
commonly referred to as a "9+2" arrangement, wherein each doublet is connected to another by the
protein dynein. As both flagella and cilia are structural components of the cell, and are maintained
by microtubules, they can be considered part of the cytoskeleton.
They play key roles in:
• intracellular transport (associated with dyneins and kinesins, they transport organelles like
mitochondria or vesicles).
• the axoneme of cilia and flagella.
• the mitotic spindle.
• synthesis of the cell wall in plants.
5.Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an eukaryotic organelle that forms
an interconnected network of tubules, vesicles, and cisternae within cells. Rough endoplasmic
reticulua synthesize proteins, while smooth endoplasmic reticulua synthesize lipids and steroids,
metabolize carbohydrates and steroids, and regulate calcium concentration, drug detoxification, and
attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins. Sarcoplasmic reticulua solely regulate calcium
levels.The lacey membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were first seen by Keith R. Porter,
Albert Claude, and Ernest F. Fullam in 1945.
Structure:The general structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is an extensive membrane network of
cisternae (sac-like structures) held together by the cytoskeleton. The phospholipid membrane
encloses a space, the cisternal space (or lumen), from the cytosol, which is continuous with the
perinuclear space. The functions of the endoplasmic reticulum vary greatly depending on the exact
type of endoplasmic reticulum and the type of cell in which it resides. The three varieties are called
1. rough endoplasmic reticulum,
2. smooth endoplasmic reticulum
3. sarcoplasmic reticulum.
1.Rough endoplasmic reticulum:The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is studded
with protein-manufacturing ribosomes giving it a "rough" appearance (hence its name). However, the
ribosomes bound to the RER at any one time are not a stable part of this organelle's structure as
ribosomes are constantly being bound and released from the membrane. A ribosome only binds to the
ER once it begins to synthesize a protein destined for the secretory pathwayHere, a ribosome in the
cytosol begins synthesizing a protein until a signal recognition particle recognizes the pre-piece of 5-
15 hydrophobic amino acids preceded by a positively charged amino acid. This signal sequence
allows the recognition particle to bind to the ribosome, causing the ribosome to bind to the RER and
pass the new protein through the ER membrane. The pre-piece is then cleaved off within the lumen of
the ER and the ribosome released back into the cytosol.
The membrane of the RER is continuous with the outer layer of the nuclear envelope. Although there
is no continuous membrane between the RER and the Golgi apparatus, membrane-bound vesicles
shuttle proteins between these two compartments. Vesicles are surrounded by coating proteins called
COPI and COPII. COPII targets vesicles to the golgi and COPI marks them to be brought back to
the RER. The RER works in concert with the Golgi complex to target new proteins to their proper
destinations. A second method of transport out of the ER are areas called membrane contact sites,
where the membranes of the ER and other organelles are held closely together, allowing the transfer of
lipids and other small molecules

The Rough endoplasmic reticulum is key in multiple functions:

A..lysosomal enzymes with a mannose-6-phosphate marker added in the cis-Golgi network
B.Secreted proteins, either secreted constitutively with no tag, or regulated secretion involving
clathrin and paired basic amino acids in the signal peptide.
C.integral membrane proteins that stay imbedded in the membrane as vesicles exit and bind to new
membranes. Rab proteins are key in targeting the membrane, SNAP and SNARE proteins are key in
the fusion event.
D.initial glycosylation as assembly continues. This is either N-linked (O-linking occur in the golgi).
D1.N-linked glycosylation: if the protein is properly folded, glycosyltransferase recognizes the
AA sequence NXS or NXT (with the S/T residue phosphorylated) and adds a 14 sugar backbone (2
N-acetylglucosamine, 9 branching mannose, and 3 glucose at the end) to the side chain nitrogen
of Asn.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) has functions in several
metabolic processes, including synthesis of lipids and steroids, metabolism of carbohydrates,
regulation of calcium concentration, drug detoxification, attachment of receptors on cell membrane
proteins, and steroid metabolism. It is connected to the nuclear envelope. Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum is found in a variety of cell types (both animal and plant) and it serves different functions in
each. The Smooth ER also contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase which converts glucose-6-
phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis. The SER consists of tubules and vesicles that branch
forming a network. In some cells there are dilated areas like the sacs of RER. The network of SER
allows increased surface area for the action or storage of key enzymes and the products of these
enzymes.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum:The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), from the Greek sarx, ("flesh"), is a special
type of smooth ER found in smooth and striated muscle. The only structural difference between this
organelle and the SER is the medley of proteins they have, both bound to their membranes and drifting
within the confines of their lumens. This fundamental difference is indicative of their functions: the
SER synthesizes molecules while the SR stores and pumps calcium ions. The SR contains large stores
of calcium, which it sequesters and then releases when the muscle cell is stimulated. The SR's release
of calcium upon electrical stimulation of the cell plays a major role in excitation-contraction
coupling.
Functions:The endoplasmic reticulum serves many general functions, including the facilitation of
protein folding and the transport of synthesized proteins in sacs called cisternae.
1.Transport of proteins:Secretory proteins, mostly glycoproteins, are moved across the endoplasmic
reticulum membrane. Proteins that are transported by the endoplasmic reticulum and from there
throughout the cell are marked with an address tag called a signal sequence. The N-terminus (one
end) of a polypeptide chain (i.e., a protein) contains a few amino acids that work as an address tag,
which are removed when the polypeptide reaches its destination. Proteins that are destined for places
outside the endoplasmic reticulum are packed into transport vesicles and moved along the
cytoskeleton toward their destination.
The endoplasmic reticulum is also part of a protein sorting pathway. It is, in essence, the transportation
system of the eukaryotic cell
2.Insertion of proteins into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane: Integral membrane proteins
are inserted into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane as they are being synthesized (co-translational
translocation). Insertion into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane requires the correct topogenic
signal sequences in the protein.
3.Glycosylation: Glycosylation involves the attachment of oligosaccharides.
4.Disulfide bond formation and rearrangement: Disulfide bonds stabilize the tertiary and
quaternary structure of many proteins.
5.Drug metabolism: The smooth ER is the site at which some drugs are modified by microsomal
enzymes which include the cytochrome P450 enzymes.
6..flagellum :A flagellum (,in plural form: flagella) is a tail-like projection that protrudes from the cell
body of certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and functions in locomotion. There are some
notable differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella, such as protein composition,
structure, and mechanism of propulsion. An example of a flagellated bacterium is the ulcer-causing
Helicobacter pylori, which uses multiple flagella to propel itself through the mucus lining to reach
the stomach epithelium. An example of a eukaryotic flagellated cell is the sperm cell, which uses its
flagellum to propel itself through the female reproductive tract. Eukaryotic flagella are structurally
identical to eukaryotic cilia, although distinctions are sometimes made according to function and/or
length. The word flagellum is the Latin word for whip.
Three types of flagella have so far been distinguished; bacterial, archaeal and eukaryotic.
The main differences among these three types are summarized below:
1.Bacterial flagella are helical filaments that rotate like screws. They provide two of several kinds of
bacterial motility.
2.Archaeal flagella are superficially similar to bacterial flagella, but are different in many details and
considered non-homologous.
3.Eukaryotic flagella - those of animal, plant, and protist cells - are complex cellular projections that
lash back and forth. Eukaryotic flagella are classed along with eukaryotic motile cilia as undulipodia
to emphasize their distinctive wavy appendage role in cellular function or motility. Primary cilia are
immotile, and are not undulipodia; they have a structurally different 9+0 axoneme rather than the
9+2 axoneme found in both flagella and motile cilia undulopodia.
7. Golgi apparatus: The Golgi apparatus (also Golgi body or the Golgi complex) is an organelle
found in most eukaryotic cells. It was identified in 1897 by the Italian physician Camillo Golgi,
after whom the Golgi apparatus is named.
The Golgi apparatus processes and packages macromolecules, such as proteins and lipids, after their
synthesis and before they make their way to their destination; it is particularly important in the
processing of proteins for secretion. The Golgi apparatus forms a part of the cellular endomembrane
system
Due to its fairly large size, the Golgi apparatus was one of the first organelles to be discovered and
observed in detail. The apparatus was discovered in 1897 by Italian physician Camillo Golgi
during an investigation of the nervous system. After first observing it under his microscope, he
termed the structure the internal reticular apparatus. The structure was then renamed after Golgi
not long after the announcement of his discovery in 1898. However, some doubted the discovery at
first, arguing that the appearance of the structure was merely an optical illusion created by the
observation technique used by Golgi. With the development of modern microscopes in the 20th
century, the discovery was confirmed.
Structure:Found in both plant and animal cells, the Golgi is composed of stacks of membrane-
bound structures known as cisternae (singular: cisterna). An individual stack is sometimes called
a dictyosome (from Greek dictyon, net + soma, body), especially in plant cells. A mammalian cell
typically contains 40 to 100 stacks. Between four and eight cisternae are usually present in a stack;
however, in some protists as many as sixty have been observed. Each cisterna comprises a flat,
membrane enclosed disc that includes special Golgi enzymes which modify or help to modify
cargo proteins that travel through it.
The cisternae stack has four functional regions: the cis-Golgi network, medial-Golgi, endo-Golgi,
and trans-Golgi network. Vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum (via the vesicular-tubular
clusters) fuse with the network and subsequently progress through the stack to the trans Golgi
network, where they are packaged and sent to the required destination. Each region contains
different enzymes which selectively modify the contents depending on where they reside. The
cisternae also carry structural proteins important for their maintenance as flattened membranes
which stack upon each other

Function:The Golgi apparatus is integral in modifying, sorting, and packaging these macromolecules
for cell secretion (exocytosis) or use within the cell. It primarily modifies proteins delivered from the
rough endoplasmic reticulum but is also involved in the transport of lipids around the cell, and the
creation of lysosomes. In this respect it can be thought of as similar to a post office; it packages and
labels items which it then sends to different parts of the cell.
The Golgi plays an important role in the synthesis of proteoglycans, which are molecules present in
the extracellular matrix of animals. It is also a major site of carbohydrate synthesis
 The Golgi has a putative role in apoptosis, with several Bcl-2 family members localised there, as well
as to the mitochondria. A newly characterized protein, GAAP (Golgi anti-apoptotic protein), almost
exclusively resides in the Golgi and protects cells from apoptosis by an as-yet undefined mechanism
8.Mitochondrion: In cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed
organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. These organelles range from 0.5 to 10 micrometers (μm) in
diameter. Mitochondria are sometimes described as "cellular power plants" because they generate
most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy. In
addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in a range of other processes, such as
signaling, cellular differentiation, cell death, as well as the control of the cell cycle and cell growth.
Mitochondria have been implicated in several human diseases, including mitochondrial disordersand
cardiac dysfunction, and may play a role in the aging process. The word mitochondrion comes from
the Greek chondrion, granule.
Several characteristics make mitochondria unique. The number of mitochondria in a cell varies widely
by organism and tissue type. Many cells have only a single mitochondrion, whereas others can
contain several thousand mitochondria. The organelle is composed of compartments that carry out
specialized functions. These compartments or regions include the outer membrane, the
intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the cristae and matrix. Mitochondrial proteins
vary depending on the tissue and the species. In humans, 615 distinct types of proteins have been
identified from cardiac mitochondria, whereas in Murinae (rats), 940 proteins encoded by distinct
genes have been reported. The mitochondrial proteome is thought to be dynamically regulated.
Although most of a cell's DNA is contained in the cell nucleus, the mitochondrion has its own
independent genome. Further, its DNA shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes
Structure
A mitochondrion contains outer and inner membranes composed of phospholipid bilayers and
proteins. The two membranes, however, have different properties. Because of this double-membraned
organization, there are five distinct compartments within the mitochondrion. There is the outer
mitochondrial membrane, the intermembrane space (the space between the outer and inner
membranes), the inner mitochondrial membrane, the cristae space (formed by infoldings of the inner
membrane), and the matrix (space within the inner membrane).
A.Outer mitochondrial membrane:The outer mitochondrial membrane, which encloses the entire
organelle, has a protein-to-phospholipid ratio similar to that of the eukaryotic plasma membrane (about
1:1 by weight). It contains large numbers of integral proteins called porins. These porins form
channels that allow molecules 5000 Daltons or less in molecular weight to freely diffuse from one side
of the membrane to the other. Larger proteins can enter the mitochondrion if a signaling sequence at
their N-terminus binds to a large multisubunit protein called translocase of the outer membrane,
which then actively moves them across the membrane. Disruption of the outer membrane permits
proteins in the intermembrane space to leak into the cytosol, leading to certain cell death. The
mitochondrial outer membrane can associate with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane, in a
structure called MAM (mitochondria-associated ER-membrane). This is important in ER-
mitochondria calcium signaling and involved in the transfer of lipids between the ER and mitochondria.
B.Intermembrane space:The intermembrane space is the space between the outer membrane and the
inner membrane. Because the outer membrane is freely permeable to small molecules, the
concentrations of small molecules such as ions and sugars in the intermembrane space is the same as
the cytosol. However, large proteins must have a specific signaling sequence to be transported across
the outer membrane, so the protein composition of this space is different from the protein composition
of the cytosol. One protein that is localized to the intermembrane space in this way is cytochrome c.
C.Inner mitochondrial membrane:The inner mitochondrial membrane contains proteins with five
types of functions:
1. Those that perform the redox reactions of oxidative phosphorylation
2. ATP synthase, which generates ATP in the matrix
3. Specific transport proteins that regulate metabolite passage into and out of the matrix
4. Protein import machinery.
5. Mitochondria fusion and fission protein
It contains more than 151 different polypeptides, and has a very high protein-to-phospholipid ratio
(more than 3:1 by weight, which is about 1 protein for 15 phospholipids). The inner membrane is home
to around 1/5 of the total protein in a mitochondrion. In addition, the inner membrane is rich in an
unusual phospholipid, cardiolipin. This phospholipid was originally discovered in cow hearts in 1942,
and is usually characteristic of mitochondrial and bacterial plasma membranes. Cardiolipin contains four
fatty acids rather than two and may help to make the inner membrane impermeableUnlike the outer
membrane, the inner membrane doesn't contain porins and is highly impermeable to all molecules.
Almost all ions and molecules require special membrane transporters to enter or exit the matrix. Proteins
are ferried into the matrix via the translocase of the inner membrane (TIM) complex or via Oxa1. In
addition, there is a membrane potential across the inner membrane formed by the action of the enzymes
of the electron transport chain.
D.Cristae: The inner mitochondrial membrane is compartmentalized into numerous cristae, which
expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane, enhancing its ability to produce ATP. For
typical liver mitochondria the area of the inner membrane is about five times greater than the outer
membrane. This ratio is variable and mitochondria from cells that have a greater demand for ATP, such
as muscle cells, contain even more cristae. These folds are studded with small round bodies known as F1
particles or oxysomes. These are not simple random folds but rather invaginations of the inner
membrane, which can affect overall chemiosmotic function.
One recent mathematical modeling study has suggested that the optical properties of the christae in
filamentous mitochondria may affect the generation and propogation of light within the tissue.
E.Mitochondrial matrix:The matrix is the space enclosed by the inner membrane. It contains about 2/3
of the total protein in a mitochondrion. The matrix is important in the production of ATP with the aid of
the ATP synthase contained in the inner membrane. The matrix contains a highly-concentrated mixture
of hundreds of enzymes, special mitochondrial ribosomes, tRNA, and several copies of the
mitochondrial DNA genome. Of the enzymes, the major functions include oxidation of pyruvate and
fatty acids, and the citric acid cycle.
Mitochondria have their own genetic material, and the machinery to manufacture their own RNAs and
proteins .A published human mitochondrial DNA sequence revealed 16,569 base pairs encoding 37
total genes: 22 tRNA, 2 rRNA, and 13 peptide genes. The 13 mitochondrial peptides in humans are
integrated into the inner mitochondrial membrane, along with proteins encoded by genes that reside in
the host cell's nucleus.
Organization and distribution:Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotes. They vary in number
and location according to cell type. A single mitochondrion is often found in unicellular organisms.
Conversely, numerous mitochondria are found in human liver cells, with about 1000–2000 mitochondria
per cell making up 1/5th of the cell volumeThe mitochondria can be found nestled between myofibrils
of muscle or wrapped around the sperm flagellum. Often they form a complex 3D branching network
inside the cell with the cytoskeleton. The association with the cytoskeleton determines mitochondrial
shape, which can affect the function as well.Recent evidence suggests vimentin, one of the components
of the cytoskeleton, is critical to the association with the cytoskeleton.
Function:The most prominent roles of mitochondria are to produce ATP (i.e., phosphorylation of ADP)
through respiration, and to regulate cellular metabolism. The central set of reactions involved in ATP
production are collectively known as the citric acid cycle, or the Krebs Cycle. However, the
mitochondrion has many other functions in addition to the production of ATP.
i.Energy conversion:A dominant role for the mitochondria is the production of ATP, as reflected by the
large number of proteins in the inner membrane for this task. This is done by oxidizing the major
products of glucose, pyruvate, and NADH, which are produced in the cytosol. This process of cellular
respiration, also known as aerobic respiration, is dependent on the presence of oxygen. When oxygen
is limited, the glycolytic products will be metabolized by anaerobic respiration, a process that is
independent of the mitochondria. The production of ATP from glucose has an approximately 13-fold
higher yield during aerobic respiration compared to anaerobic respiration. Recently it has been shown
that plant mitochondria can produce a limited amount of ATP without oxygen by using the alternate
substrate nitrite.
ii.Pyruvate and the citric acid cycle:Each pyruvate molecule produced by glycolysis is actively
transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the matrix where it is oxidized and
combined with coenzyme A to form CO2, acetyl-CoA, and NADH.
The acetyl-CoA is the primary substrate to enter the citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid
(TCA) cycle or Krebs cycle. The enzymes of the citric acid cycle are located in the mitochondrial matrix,
with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase, which is bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane as
part of Complex IIThe citric acid cycle oxidizes the acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide, and, in the process,
produces reduced cofactors (three molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH2) that are a source of
electrons for the electron transport chain, and a molecule of GTP (that is readily converted to an ATP
iii.NADH and FADH2: the electron transport chain:The redox energy from NADH and FADH2 is
transferred to oxygen (O2) in several steps via the electron transport chain. These energy-rich molecules
are produced within the matrix via the citric acid cycle but are also produced in the cytoplasm by
glycolysis. Reducing equivalents from the cytoplasm can be imported via the malate-aspartate shuttle
system of antiporter proteins or feed into the electron transport chain using a glycerol phosphate shuttle
Protein complexes in the inner membrane (NADH dehydrogenase, cytochrome c reductase, and
cytochrome c oxidase) perform the transfer and the incremental release of energy is used to pump protons
(H+) into the intermembrane space. This process is efficient, but a small percentage of electrons may
prematurely reduce oxygen, forming reactive oxygen species such as superoxide. This can cause
oxidative stress in the mitochondria and may contribute to the decline in mitochondrial function
associated with the aging process.
As the proton concentration increases in the intermembrane space, a strong electrochemical gradient is
established across the inner membrane. The protons can return to the matrix through the ATP synthase
complex, and their potential energy is used to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).
This process is called chemiosmosis, and was first described by Peter Mitchell who was awarded the
1978 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work. Later, part of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was
awarded to Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker for their clarification of the working mechanism of
ATP synthase.
iv.Heat production:Under certain conditions, protons can re-enter the mitochondrial matrix without
contributing to ATP synthesis. This process is known as proton leak or mitochondrial uncoupling and is
due to the facilitated diffusion of protons into the matrix. The process results in the unharnessed potential
energy of the proton electrochemical gradient being released as heat. The process is mediated by a proton
channel called thermogenin, or UCP1. Thermogenin is a 33kDa protein first discovered in 1973.
Thermogenin is primarily found in brown adipose tissue, or brown fat, and is responsible for non-
shivering thermogenesis. Brown adipose tissue is found in mammals, and is at its highest levels in early
life and in hibernating animals. In humans, brown adipose tissue is present at birth and decreases with age
v.Storage of calcium ions:The concentrations of free calcium in the cell can regulate an array of reactions
and is important for signal transduction in the cell. Mitochondria can transiently store calcium, a
contributing process for the cell's homeostasis of calcium. In fact, their ability to rapidly take in calcium
for later release makes them very good "cytosolic buffers" for calcium. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is
the most significant storage site of calcium, and there is a significant interplay between the mitochondrion
and ER with regard to calcium. The calcium is taken up into the matrix by a calcium uniporter on the
inner mitochondrial membrane. It is primarily driven by the mitochondrial membrane potential.
Release of this calcium back into the cell's interior can occur via a sodium-calcium exchange protein or
via "calcium-induced-calcium-release" pathways. This can initiate calcium spikes or calcium waves with
large changes in the membrane potential. These can activate a series of second messenger system
proteins that can coordinate processes such as neurotransmitter release in nerve cells and release of
hormones in endocrine cells.
Additional functions:Mitochondria play a central role in many other metabolic tasks, such as:
• Regulation of the membrane potential
• Apoptosis-programmed cell death
• Calcium signaling (including calcium-evoked apoptosis)
• Cellular proliferation regulation
• Regulation of cellular metabolism
• Certain heme synthesis reactions
• Steroid synthesis.
Some mitochondrial functions are performed only in specific types of cells. For example, mitochondria in
liver cells contain enzymes that allow them to detoxify ammonia, a waste product of protein metabolism.
A mutation in the genes regulating any of these functions can result in mitochondrial diseases.
9. Nucleus: In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meaning kernel) is
a membrane enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the cell's genetic material,
organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as
histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome.
The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the activities of the
cell by regulating gene expression — the nucleus is therefore the control center of the cell.The main
structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a double membrane that encloses the entire
organelle and separates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm, and the nuclear lamina, a meshwork
within the nucleus that adds mechanical support, much like the cytoskeleton supports the cell as a whole.
Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to most molecules, nuclear pores are required to allow
movement of molecules across the envelope. These pores cross both of the membranes, providing a
channel that allows free movement of small molecules and ions. The movement of larger molecules such
as proteins is carefully controlled, and requires active transport regulated by carrier proteins. Nuclear
transport is crucial to cell function, as movement through the pores is required for both gene expression
and chromosomal maintenance.
Although the interior of the nucleus does not contain any membrane-bound subcompartments, its contents
are not uniform, and a number of subnuclear bodies exist, made up of unique proteins, RNA molecules,
and particular parts of the chromosomes. The best known of these is the nucleolus, which is mainly
involved in the assembly of ribosomes. After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to
the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA.
The nucleus was the first organelle to be discovered. The probably oldest preserved drawing dates back to
the early microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632 – 1723). He observed a "Lumen", the nucleus,
in the red blood cells of salmon. Unlike mammalian red blood cells, those of other vertebrates still
possess nuclei. The nucleus was also described by Franz Bauer in 1804 and in more detail in 1831 by
Scottish botanist Robert Brown in a talk at the Linnean Society of London. Brown was studying
orchids microscopically when he observed an opaque area, which he called the areola or nucleus, in the
cells of the flower's outer layer. He did not suggest a potential function. In 1838 Matthias Schleiden
proposed that the nucleus plays a role in generating cells, thus he introduced the name "Cytoblast"
(cell builder). He believed that he had observed new cells assembling around "cytoblasts". Franz Meyen
was a strong opponent of this view having already described cells multiplying by division and believing
that many cells would have no nuclei. The idea that cells can be generated de novo, by the "cytoblast" or
otherwise, contradicted work by Robert Remak (1852) and Rudolf Virchow (1855) who decisively
propagated the new paradigm that cells are generated solely by cells ("Omnis cellula e cellula"). The
function of the nucleus remained unclear.
Between 1876 and 1878 Oscar Hertwig published several studies on the fertilization of sea urchin
eggs, showing that the nucleus of the sperm enters the oocyte and fuses with its nucleus. This was
the first time it was suggested that an individual develops from a (single) nucleated cell. This was in
contradiction to Ernst Haeckel's theory that the complete phylogeny of a species would be
repeated during embryonic development, including generation of the first nucleated cell from a
"Monerula", a structureless mass of primordial mucus ("Urschleim"). Therefore, the necessity of
the sperm nucleus for fertilization was discussed for quite some time. However, Hertwig confirmed his
observation in other animal groups, e.g. amphibians and molluscs. Eduard Strasburger produced the
same results for plants (1884). This paved the way to assign the nucleus an important role in heredity. In
1873 August Weismann postulated the equivalence of the maternal and paternal germ cells for heredity.
The function of the nucleus as carrier of genetic information became clear only later, after mitosis was
discovered and the Mendelian rules were rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century; the
chromosome theory of heredity was developed
Structures:The nucleus is the largest cellular organelle in animals. In mammalian cells, the average
diameter of the nucleus is approximately 6 micrometers (μm), which occupies about 10% of the total
cell volume. The viscous liquid within it is called nucleoplasm, and is similar in composition to the
cytosol found outside the nucleus. It appears as a dense, roughly spherical organelle.
A.Nuclear envelope and pores:The nuclear envelope otherwise known as nuclear membrane
consists of two cellular membranes, an inner and an outer membrane, arranged parallel to one
another and separated by 10 to 50 nanometers (nm). The nuclear envelope completely encloses the
nucleus and separates the cell's genetic material from the surrounding cytoplasm, serving as a barrier
to prevent macromolecules from diffusing freely between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm. The
outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER), and is similarly studded with ribosomes. The space between the membranes is called the
perinuclear space and is continuous with the RER lumen.
Nuclear pores, which provide aqueous channels through the envelope, are composed of multiple
proteins, collectively referred to as nucleoporins. The pores are about 125 million daltons in
molecular weight and consist of around 50 (in yeast) to 100 proteins (in vertebrates). The pores are
100& nbsp;nm in total diameter; however, the gap through which molecules freely diffuse is only
about 9 nm wide, due to the presence of regulatory systems within the center of the pore. This size
allows the free passage of small water-soluble molecules while preventing larger molecules, such as
nucleic acids and larger proteins, from inappropriately entering or exiting the nucleus. These large
molecules must be actively transported into the nucleus instead. The nucleus of a typical mammalian
cell will have about 3000 to 4000 pores throughout its envelope,(ref name="Rhoades")Rodney
Rhoades, Richard Pflanzer, ed (1996). "Ch3". Human Physiology (3rd ed.). Saunders College
Publishing.each of which contains a donut-shaped, eightfold-symmetric ring-shaped structure at a
position where the inner and outer membranes fuse. Attached to the ring is a structure called the
nuclear basket that extends into the nucleoplasm, and a series of filamentous extensions that reach into
the cytoplasm. Both structures serve to mediate binding to nuclear transport proteins.
Most proteins, ribosomal subunits, and some RNAs are transported through the pore complexes in a
process mediated by a family of transport factors known as karyopherins. Those karyopherins that
mediate movement into the nucleus are also called importins, while those that mediate movement out
of the nucleus are called exportins. Most karyopherins interact directly with their cargo, although some
use adaptor proteins. Steroid hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone, as well as other small lipid-
soluble molecules involved in intercellular signaling can diffuse through the cell membrane and into
the cytoplasm, where they bind nuclear receptor proteins that are trafficked into the nucleus. There
they serve as transcription factors when bound to their ligand; in the absence of ligand many such
receptors function as histone deacetylases that repress gene expression.
B.Nuclear lamina:In animal cells, two networks of intermediate filaments provide the nucleus with
mechanical support: the nuclear lamina forms an organized meshwork on the internal face of the
envelope, while less organized support is provided on the cytosolic face of the envelope. Both systems
provide structural support for the nuclear envelope and anchoring sites for chromosomes and nuclear pores.
The nuclear lamina is mostly composed of lamin proteins. Like all proteins, lamins are synthesized in
the cytoplasm and later transported into the nucleus interior, where they are assembled before being
incorporated into the existing network of nuclear lamina. Lamins are also found inside the
nucleoplasm where they form another regular structure, known as the nucleoplasmic veil, that is
visible using fluorescence microscopy. The actual function of the veil is not clear, although it is
excluded from the nucleolus and is present during interphase. The lamin structures that make up the
veil bind chromatin and disrupting their structure inhibits transcription of protein-coding genes.
Like the components of other intermediate filaments, the lamin monomer contains an alpha-helical
domain used by two monomers to coil around each other, forming a dimer structure called a coiled coil.
Two of these dimer structures then join side by side, in an antiparallel arrangement, to form a tetramer
called a protofilament. Eight of these protofilaments form a lateral arrangement that is twisted to form a
ropelike filament. These filaments can be assembled or disassembled in a dynamic manner, meaning that
changes in the length of the filament depend on the competing rates of filament addition and removal.
Mutations in lamin genes leading to defects in filament assembly are known as laminopathies. The
most notable laminopathy is the family of diseases known as progeria, which causes the appearance
of premature aging in its sufferers. The exact mechanism by which the associated biochemical
changes give rise to the aged phenotype is not well understood.
C.Chromosomes:The cell nucleus contains the majority of the cell's genetic material, in the form of
multiple linear DNA molecules organized into structures called chromosomes. During most of the cell
cycle these are organized in a DNA-protein complex known as chromatin, and during cell division
the chromatin can be seen to form the well defined chromosomes familiar from a karyotype. A small
fraction of the cell's genes are located instead in the mitochondria.
There are two types of chromatin. Euchromatin is the less compact DNA form, and contains genes
that are frequently expressed by the cell. The other type, heterochromatin, is the more compact form,
and contains DNA that are infrequently transcribed. This structure is further categorized into
facultative heterochromatin, consisting of genes that are organized as heterochromatin only in
certain cell types or at certain stages of development, and constitutive heterochromatin that consists
of chromosome structural components such as telomeres and centromeres. During interphase the
chromatin organizes itself into discrete individual patches, called chromosome territories. Active
genes, which are generally found in the euchromatic region of the chromosome, tend to be located
towards the chromosome's territory boundary.
Antibodies to certain types of chromatin organization, particularly nucleosomes, have been associated
with a number of autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus. These are known as
anti-nuclear antibodies (ANA) and have also been observed in concert with multiple sclerosis as
part of general immune system dysfunction. As in the case of progeria, the role played by the
antibodies in inducing the symptoms of autoimmune diseases is not obvious.
The nucleolus is a discrete densely stained structure found in the nucleus. It is not surrounded by a
membrane, and is sometimes called a suborganelle. It forms around tandem repeats of rDNA, DNA
coding for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These regions are called nucleolar organizer regions (NOR).
The main roles of the nucleolus are to synthesize rRNA and assemble ribosomes. The structural
cohesion of the nucleolus depends on its activity, as ribosomal assembly in the nucleolus results in the
transient association of nucleolar components, facilitating further ribosomal assembly, and hence
further association. This model is supported by observations that inactivation of rDNA results in
intermingling of nucleolar structures.
The first step in ribosomal assembly is transcription of the rDNA, by a protein called RNA
polymerase I, forming a large pre-rRNA precursor. This is cleaved into the subunits 5.8S, 18S, and
28S rRNA. The transcription, post-transcriptional processing, and assembly of rRNA occurs in the
nucleolus, aided by small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) molecules, some of which are derived from
spliced introns from messenger RNAs encoding genes related to ribosomal function. The assembled
ribosomal subunits are the largest structures passed through the nuclear pores.
Function:The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and mediate the
replication of DNA during the cell cycle. The nucleus provides a site for genetic transcription that
is segregated from the location of translation in the cytoplasm, allowing levels of gene regulation
that are not available to prokaryotes.
i.Cell compartmentalization:The nuclear envelope allows the nucleus to control its contents, and
separate them from the rest of the cytoplasm where necessary. This is important for controlling
processes on either side of the nuclear membrane. In some cases where a cytoplasmic process needs to
be restricted, a key participant is removed to the nucleus, where it interacts with transcription factors to
downregulate the production of certain enzymes in the pathway. This regulatory mechanism occurs in
the case of glycolysis, a cellular pathway for breaking down glucose to produce energy. Hexokinase is
an enzyme responsible for the first the step of glycolysis, forming glucose-6-phosphate from glucose.
At high concentrations of fructose-6-phosphate, a molecule made later from glucose-6-phosphate, a
regulator protein removes hexokinase to the nucleus, where it forms a transcriptional repressor complex
with nuclear proteins to reduce the expression of genes involved in glycolysis.
In order to control which genes are being transcribed, the cell separates some transcription factor
proteins responsible for regulating gene expression from physical access to the DNA until they are
activated by other signaling pathways. This prevents even low levels of inappropriate gene expression.
For example in the case of NF-κB-controlled genes, which are involved in most inflammatory
responses, transcription is induced in response to a signal pathway such as that initiated by the
signaling molecule TNF-α, binds to a cell membrane receptor, resulting in the recruitment of
signalling proteins, and eventually activating the transcription factor NF-κB. A nuclear localisation
signal on the NF-κB protein allows it to be transported through the nuclear pore and into the nucleus,
where it stimulates the transcription of the target genes.
The compartmentalization allows the cell to prevent translation of unspliced mRNA. Eukaryotic
mRNA contains introns that must be removed before being translated to produce functional proteins.
The splicing is done inside the nucleus before the mRNA can be accessed by ribosomes for translation.
Without the nucleus ribosomes would translate newly transcribed (unprocessed) mRNA resulting in
misformed and nonfunctional proteins.
ii.Gene expression:Gene expression first involves transcription, in which DNA is used as a template
to produce RNA. In the case of genes encoding proteins, that RNA produced from this process is
messenger RNA (mRNA), which then needs to be translated by ribosomes to form a protein. As
ribosomes are located outside the nucleus, mRNA produced needs to be exported.
Since the nucleus is the site of transcription, it also contains a variety of proteins which either directly
mediate transcription or are involved in regulating the process. These proteins include helicases that
unwind the double-stranded DNA molecule to facilitate access to it, RNA polymerases that
synthesize the growing RNA molecule, topoisomerases that change the amount of supercoiling in
DNA, helping it wind and unwind, as well as a large variety of transcription factors that regulate
expression.
iii.Processing of pre-mRNA:Newly synthesized mRNA molecules are known as primary transcripts
or pre-mRNA. They must undergo post-transcriptional modification in the nucleus before being
exported to the cytoplasm; mRNA that appears in the cytoplasm without these modifications is degraded
rather than used for protein translation.The three main modifications are 5' capping, 3'
polyadenylation, and RNA splicing. While in the nucleus, pre-mRNA is associated with a variety of
proteins in complexes known as heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein particles (hnRNPs). Addition of the
5' cap occurs co-transcriptionally and is the first step in post-transcriptional modification. The 3' poly-
adenine tail is only added after transcription is complete.
RNA splicing, carried out by a complex called the spliceosome, is the process by which introns, or
regions of DNA that do not code for protein, are removed from the pre-mRNA and the remaining exons
connected to re-form a single continuous molecule. This process normally occurs after 5' capping and 3'
polyadenylation but can begin before synthesis is complete in transcripts with many exonsMany pre-
mRNAs, including those encoding antibodies, can be spliced in multiple ways to produce different
mature mRNAs that encode different protein sequences. This process is known as alternative splicing,
and allows production of a large variety of proteins from a limited amount of DNA.
iv.Nuclear transport:The entry and exit of large molecules from the nucleus is tightly controlled by
the nuclear pore complexes. Although small molecules can enter the nucleus without regulation,
macromolecules such as RNA and proteins require association karyopherins called importins to
enter the nucleus and exportins to exit. "Cargo" proteins that must be translocated from the cytoplasm
to the nucleus contain short amino acid sequences known as nuclear localization signals which are
bound by importins, while those transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm carry nuclear export
signals bound by exportins. The ability of importins and exportins to transport their cargo is regulated
by GTPases, enzymes that hydrolyze the molecule guanosine triphosphate to release energy. The
key GTPase in nuclear transport is Ran, which can bind either GTP or GDP (guanosine diphosphate)
depending on whether it is located in the nucleus or the cytoplasm. Whereas importins depend on
RanGTP to dissociate from their cargo, exportins require RanGTP in order to bind to their cargo.
Nuclear import depends on the importin binding its cargo in the cytoplasm and carrying it through the
nuclear pore into the nucleus. Inside the nucleus, RanGTP acts to separate the cargo from the importin,
allowing the importin to exit the nucleus and be reused. Nuclear export is similar, as the exportin binds
the cargo inside the nucleus in a process facilitated by RanGTP, exits through the nuclear pore, and
separates from its cargo in the cytoplasm.
Specialized export proteins exist for translocation of mature mRNA and tRNA to the cytoplasm after
post-transcriptional modification is complete. This quality-control mechanism is important due to the
these molecules' central role in protein translation; mis-expression of a protein due to incomplete
excision of exons or mis-incorporation of amino acids could have negative consequences for the cell;
thus incompletely modified RNA that reaches the cytoplasm is degraded rather than used in translation
v.Assembly and disassembly:During its lifetime a nucleus may be broken down, either in the process
of cell division or as a consequence of apoptosis, a regulated form of cell death. During these events,
the structural components of the nucleus—the envelope and lamina—are systematically degraded.
During the cell cycle the cell divides to form two cells. In order for this process to be possible, each of
the new daughter cells must have a full set of genes, a process requiring replication of the
chromosomes as well as segregation of the separate sets. This occurs by the replicated chromosomes,
the sister chromatids, attaching to microtubules, which in turn are attached to different
centrosomes. The sister chromatids can then be pulled to separate locations in the cell. In many cells
the centrosome is located in the cytoplasm, outside the nucleus, the microtubules would be unable to
attach to the chromatids in the presence of the nuclear envelope. Therefore the early stages in the cell
cycle, beginning in prophase and until around prometaphase, the nuclear membrane is dismantled
Likewise, during the same period, the nuclear lamina is also disassembled, a process regulated by
phosphorylation of the lamins. Towards the end of the cell cycle, the nuclear membrane is reformed,
and around the same time, the nuclear lamina are reassembled by dephosphorylating the lamins.
However, in dinoflagellates the nuclear envelope remains intact, the centrosomes are located in the
cytoplasm, and the microtubules come in contact with chromosomes, whose centromeric regions are
incorporated into the nuclear envelope (the so-called closed mitosis with extranuclear spindle). In many
other protists (e.g. ciliates, sporozoans) and fungi the centrosomes are intranuclear, and their nuclear
envelope also does not disassemle during cell division.
Apoptosis is a controlled process in which the cell's structural components are destroyed, resulting in death of the
cell. Changes associated with apoptosis directly affect the nucleus and its contents, for example in the condensation
of chromatin and the disintegration of the nuclear envelope and lamina. The destruction of the lamin networks is
controlled by specialized apoptotic proteases called caspases, which cleave the lamin proteins and thus
degrade the nucleus' structural integrity. Lamin cleavage is sometimes used as a laboratory indicator of
caspase activity in assays for early apoptotic activity. Cells that express mutant caspase-resistant lamins are
deficient in nuclear changes related to apoptosis, suggesting that lamins play a role in initiating the events that lead
to apoptotic degradation of the nucleus. Inhibition of lamin assembly itself is an inducer of apoptosis.
The nuclear envelope acts as a barrier that prevents both DNA and RNA viruses from entering the nucleus. Some
viruses require access to proteins inside the nucleus in order to replicate and/or assemble. DNA viruses, such as
herpesvirus replicate and assemble in the cell nucleus, and exit by budding through the inner nuclear membrane.
This process is accompanied by disassembly of the lamina on the nuclear face of the inner membrane
10. Ribosomes are the components of cells that make proteins from all amino acids. One of the central
tenets of biology, often referred to as the "central dogma," is that DNA is used to make RNA, which, in
turn, is used to make protein. The DNA sequence in genes is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA).
Ribosomes then read the information in this RNA and use it to create proteins. This process is known as
translation; i.e., the ribosome "translates" the genetic information from RNA into proteins. Ribosomes do this by
binding to an mRNA and using it as a template for the correct sequence of amino acids in a particular
protein. The amino acids are attached to transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which enter one part of the ribosome
and bind to the messenger RNA sequence. The attached amino acids are then joined together by another part of the
ribosome. The ribosome moves along the mRNA, "reading" its sequence and producing a chain of amino acids.
Ribosomes are made from complexes of RNAs and proteins. Ribosomes are divided into two subunits,
one larger than the other. The smaller subunit binds to the mRNA, while the larger subunit binds to the
tRNA and the amino acids. When a ribosome finishes reading a mRNA, these two subunits split apart.
Ribosomes have been classified as ribozymes, since the ribosomal RNA seems to be most important
for the peptidyl transferase activity that links amino acids together.
Ribosomes from bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes have significantly different structures and RNA
sequences. These differences in structure allow some antibiotics to kill bacteria by inhibiting their
ribosomes, while leaving human ribosomes unaffected. The ribosomes in the mitochondria of
eukaryotic cells resemble those in bacteria, reflecting the likely evolutionary origin of this organelle.
The word ribosome comes from ribonucleic acid and the Greek: soma (meaning body).
Function:Ribosomes are the workhorses of protein biosynthesis, the process of translating mRNA into
protein. The mRNA comprises a series of codons that dictate to the ribosome the sequence of the
amino acids needed to make the protein. Using the mRNA as a template, the ribosome traverses each
codon (3 nucleotides) of the mRNA, pairing it with the appropriate amino acid provided by a tRNA.
Molecules of transfer RNA (tRNA) contain a complementary anticodon on one end and the
appropriate amino acid on the other. The small ribosomal subunit, typically bound to a tRNA containing
the amino acid methionine, binds to an AUG codon on the mRNA and recruits the large ribosomal
subunit. The ribosome then contains three RNA binding sites, designated A, P and E. The A site binds
an aminoacyl-tRNA (a tRNA bound to an amino acid); the P site binds a peptidyl-tRNA (a tRNA bound
to the peptide being synthesized); and the E site binds a free tRNA before it exits the ribosome. Protein
synthesis begins at a start codon AUG near the 5' end of the mRNA. mRNA binds to the P site of the
ribosome first. The ribosome is able to identify the start codon by use of the Shine-Dalgarno sequence
of the mRNA in prokaryotes and Kozak box in eukaryotes.
Nobel Prize:Together with Albert Claude and Christian de Duve, George Emil Palade was awarded
the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, in 1974, for the discovery of the ribosomes. The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry 2009 was awarded to Drs Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas A. Steitz and
Ada E. Yonath "for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome
11.vesicle: A vesicle can be visualised as a bubble of liquid within another liquid, a supramolecular
assembly made up of many different molecules. More technically, a vesicle is a small membrane-
enclosed sack that can store or transport substances. Vesicles can form naturally because of the
properties of lipid membranes or they may be prepared. Artificially prepared vesicles are known as
liposomes. Most vesicles have specialized functions depending on what materials they contain.
Because vesicles tend to look alike, it is very difficult to tell the difference between different types.
The vesicle is separated from the cytosol by at least one phospholipid bilayer. If there is only one
phospholipid bilayer, they are called unilamellar vesicles; otherwise they are called multilamellar.
Vesicles store, transport, or digest cellular products and waste. The membrane enclosing the vesicle
is similar to that of the plasma membrane, and vesicles can fuse with the plasma membrane to release
their contents outside of the cell. Vesicles can also fuse with other organelles within the cell.
Because it is separated from the cytosol, the inside of the vesicle can be made to be different from the
cytosolic environment. For this reason, vesicles are a basic tool used by the cell for organizing cellular
substances. Vesicles are involved in metabolism, transport, buoyancy control, and enzyme storage.
They can also act as chemical reaction
Types of vesicles:Vacuoles are vesicles which contain mostly water.Plant cells are known for having a
large central vacuole in the center of the cell that is used for osmotic control and nutrient storage.
Food vacuoles are used in phagocytosis and other forms of endocytosis. The vesicles used in
endocytosis are sometimes called endosomes. Contractile vacuoles are found in certain protists,
especially those in Phylum Ciliophora. These vacuoles take water from the cytoplasm and excrete it
from the cell to avoid bursting due to osmotic pressure.
Lysosomes: They are involved in cellular digestion. Food can be taken from outside the cell into food
vacuoles by a process called endocytosis. These food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes which break down
the components so that they can be used in the cell. This form of cellular eating is called phagocytosis.
Lysosomes are also used to destroy defective or damaged organelles in a process called endophagocytosis.
They fuse with the membrane of the damaged organelle digesting it.
Transport vesicles:Transport vesicles can move molecules between locations inside the cell, e.g.,
proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus.
Membrane-bound and secreted proteins are made on ribosomes found in the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. Most of these proteins mature in the Golgi apparatus before going to their final
destination which may be to lysosomes, peroxisomes, or outside of the cell. These proteins travel
within the cell inside of transport vesicles.
Secretory vesicles:Secretory vesicles contain materials that are to be excreted from the cell. Cells
have many reasons to excrete materials. One reason is to dispose of wastes. Another reason is tied to
the function of the cell. Within a larger organism, some cells are specialized to produce certain
chemicals. These chemicals are stored in secretory vesicles and released when needed. Some examples
include the following.
Types of secretory vesicles
Synaptic vesicles are located at presynaptic terminals in neurons and store neurotransmitters. When
a signal comes down an axon, the synaptic vesicles fuse with the cell membrane releasing the
neurotransmitter so that it can be detected by receptor molecules on the next nerve cell.
In animals endocrine tissues release hormones into the bloodstream. These hormones are stored within
secretory vesicles. A good example is the endocrine tissue found in the islets of Langerhans in the
pancreas. This tissue contains many cell types that are defined by which hormones they produce.
Secretory vesicles hold the enzymes that are used to make the cell walls of plants, protists, fungi,
bacteria, and Archaea cells as well as the extracellular matrix of animal cells.
Other types of vesicles:Gas vesicles are used by Archaea, bacteria and planktonic microorganisms,
possibly to control vertical migration by regulating the gas content and thereby buoyancy, or possibly to
position the cell for maximum solar light harvesting.
Matrix vesicles are located within the extracellular space, or matrix. Using electron microscopy but
working independently, they were discovered in 1967 by H. Clarke Anderson and Ermanno
Bonucci. These cell-derived vesicles are specialized to initiate biomineralisation of the matrix in a
variety of tissues, including bone, cartilage, and dentin. During normal calcification, a major influx
of calcium and phosphate ions into the cells accompanies cellular apoptosis (genetically determined self-
destruction) and matrix vesicle formation. Calcium-loading also leads to formation of
phosphatidylserine:calcium:phosphate complexes in the plasma membrane mediated in part by a
protein called annexins. Matrix vesicles bud from the plasma membrane at sites of interaction with the
extracellular matrix. Thus, matrix vesicles convey to the extracellular matrix calcium, phosphate, lipids
and the annexins which act to nucleate mineral formation. These processes are precisely coordinated to
bring about, at the proper place and time, mineralization of the tissue's matrix unless the Golgi are non-
existent.
Multivesicular body, or MVB, is a membrane-bound vesicle containing a number of smaller vesicles
List Of Dieases
S.no Diease Name Causal Agents Affected Part
1. AIDS HIV Virus Body Immune system

2. Arthratis Injury osteoarthritis pain and limited

infection of the joint function of joints

3. Asthama environmental and genetic factors Bronchial Muscle

4. Alzheimer's Disease the formation of large numbersof abnormal Brain

features in the brain called plaques and tangles
5. Breast Cancer Uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the Breast.
Breast.
6. Cancer Uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in one ororgans or tissues of
More organs or tissues of the body. the body
7. Chickenpox Varicella zoster virus. skin with the typical
Red, blister-like rash.
8. Cataract including long-term exposure to ultraviolet light, cloud over the lens
exposure to radiation, secondary diabetes, hypertension
Of your
andeye.
advancedage, of denaturation of lens protein.
Genetic factors
9. Conjunctivities Allergic, Bacterial, Viral and Chemical Infection outermost layer of the
eye and the inner
surface of the eyelids
10. Common cold virus Nose and throat.
11. Chlamydia bacterial infection vaginal, oral, or anal
12. Diabetes Mellitus inability of the body to metabolize glucose Pancreas And Blood
effectively Insulin
13.. Diarrhea food poisoning, viruses or bacteria dehydration or
electrolyte imbalances
14. Depression serious medical and mental health disorder that is Brain
Associated with many factors, including the
Balance of chemicals in the brain.
15. Diptheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Throat
16 Dementia loss of memory and impairment of brain function Brain
such areas as language, intellect, judgement, and
behavior
17. Eczema (Dermatitis) itching, inflammation, redness, and swelling Patches and rashes
Of the skin. On Skin
18. Goitre iodine deficiency Thyroid
19. Glaucoma eye disorder in which the optic nerve suffers Eye
damage, permanently impacting vision in the
affected eye(s) and progressing to complete
blindness if untreated
20. Hepatitis Inflammation of the liver Liver
21. Influenza(flu) virus nose, throat, bronchial
tubes and lungs
22. Jaundice problem causing yellowness Liver
23. Meningitis inflammation of the membranes and cerebrospinal fluid
brain and spinal cord
24. Myopia Refractive defect of the eye in which collimated Eye
light produces image focus in front of the retina
when accommodation is relaxed
25. Malaria P. falciparum Spleen
26. Ottis Media Colds,Jumping into water,Diving into water Ear
27. Paralysis Paralysis is most often caused by damage in the Nerves and Limbs
nervous system, especially the spinal cord
28. Polio transmission of an infectious Polio virus by Legs
anotherperson by one or more of the following:
saliva air, cough, fecal-oral route, surfaces, blood,
needles, blood transfusions, sexual contact,
mother to fetus,
29. Pyarrhoea Bacterial Infections Teeth
30. Pleurisy Viral infection Lungs
31. Pneumonia transmission of an infectious virus by Lungs
anotherperson by one or more of the following:
saliva air, cough, fecal-oral route, surfaces, blood,
needles, blood transfusions, sexual contact,
mother to fetus,
32. Parkinson's disease Imbalance of dopamine and acetylcholine, the Brain
messages from the brain are disturbed,
33. Rheumatism connective tissue inflammation Joints
34. Sinsusitis Allergies Facial Bones
35. SARS Coronaviruses Respiratory disease
36 Typoid Bacterium Salmonella enterica enterica Intenstine
37. Tuberculosis Bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Lungs
38 Tonsillitis Bacterial tonsilitis Tonsils Gland in
throat
39.
40
Genetics:
Genetics (from Ancient Greek genetikos, “genitive” and that from genesis, “origin”), a discipline of
biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms.
Genetics deals with the molecular structure and function of genes, with gene behavior in the context of
a cell or organism (e.g. dominance and epigenetics), with patterns of inheritance from parent to
offspring, and with gene distribution, variation and change in populations. Given that genes are universal
to living organisms, genetics can be applied to the study of any living system from viruses and bacteria,
through plants (especially crops) to humans (
The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times to
improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the modern science of genetics,
which seeks to understand the process of inheritance, only began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the
mid-19th century. Although he did not know the physical basis for heredity, Mendel observed that
organisms inherit traits via discrete units of inheritance, which are now called genes.
Genes correspond to regions within DNA, a molecule composed of a chain of four different types of
nucleotides—the sequence of these nucleotides is the genetic information organisms inherit. DNA
naturally occurs in a double stranded form, with nucleotides on each strand complementary to each other.
Each strand can act as a template for creating a new partner strand—this is the physical method for
making copies of genes that can be inherited.
The sequence of nucleotides in a gene is translated by cells to produce a chain of amino acids, creating
proteins—the order of amino acids in a protein corresponds to the order of nucleotides in the gene. This
relationship between nucleotide sequence and amino acid sequence is known as the genetic code. The
amino acids in a protein determine how it folds into a three-dimensional shape; this structure is, in turn,
responsible for the protein's function. Proteins carry out almost all the functions needed for cells to live. A
change to the DNA in a gene can change a protein's amino acids, changing its shape and function: this can
have a dramatic effect in the cell and on the organism as a whole.
Although genetics plays a large role in the appearance and behavior of organisms, it is the combination of
genetics with what an organism experiences that determines the ultimate outcome. For example, while
genes play a role in determining an organism's size, the nutrition and other conditions it experiences
after inception also have a large effect.
Although the science of genetics began with the applied and theoretical work of Gregor Mendel in the
mid-19th century, other theories of inheritance preceded Mendel. A popular theory during Mendel's
time was the concept of blending inheritance: the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits
from their parents. Mendel's work disproved this, showing that traits are composed of combinations of
distinct genes rather than a continuous blend. Another theory that had some support at that time was the
inheritance of acquired characteristics: the belief that individuals inherit traits strengthened by their
parents. This theory (commonly associated with Jean-Baptiste Lamarck) is now known to be wrong—
the experiences of individuals do not affect the genes they pass to their children. Other theories included
the pangenesis of Charles Darwin (which had both acquired and inherited aspects) and Francis
Galton's reformulation of pangenesis as both particulate and inherited
Mendelian inheritance (or Mendelian genetics or Mendelism) is a set of primary tenets relating to the transmission of
hereditary characteristics from parent organisms to their offspring; it underlies much of genetics. They were initially
derived from the work of Gregor Johann Mendel published in 1865 and 1866 which was "re-discovered" in 1900,
and were initially very controversial. When they were integrated with the chromosome theory of inheritance by
Thomas Hunt Morgan in 1915, they became the core of classical genetics
The laws of inheritance were derived by Gregor Johann Mendel, a 19th century Austrian Priest/monk
conducting hybridization experiments in garden peas (Pisum sativum). Between 1856 and 1863, he cultivated
and tested some 29,000 pea plants. From these experiments he deduced two generalizations which later became
known as Mendel's Principles of Heredity or Mendelian inheritance. He described these principles in a two part
paper, Experiments on Plant Hybridization that he read to the Natural History Society of Brno on February 8
and March 8, 1865, and which was published in 1866.
Mendel's conclusions were largely ignored.. A major block to understanding their significance was the importance
attached by 19th century biologists to the apparent blending of inherited traits in the overall appearance of the
progeny, now known to be due to multigene interactions, in contrast to the organ-specific binary characters
studied by Mendel. In 1900, however, his work was "re-discovered" by three European scientists, Hugo de
Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak. The exact nature of the "re-discovery" has been somewhat
debated: De Vries published first on the subject, mentioning Mendel in a footnote, while Correns pointed out
Mendel's priority after having read De Vries's paper and realizing that he himself did not have priority. De Vries
may not have acknowledged truthfully how much of his knowledge of the laws came from his own work, or came
only after reading Mendel's paper. Later scholars have accused Von Tschermak of not truly understanding the
results at all. Regardless, the "re-discovery" made Mendelism an important but controversial theory. Its most
vigorous promoter in Europe was William Bateson, who coined the term "genetics", "gene", and "allele" to
describe many of its tenets. The model of heredity was highly contested by other biologists because it implied that
heredity was discontinuous, in opposition to the apparently continuous variation observable for many traits. Many
biologists also dismissed the theory because they were not sure it would apply to all species, and there seemed to
be very few true Mendelian characters in nature. However later work by biologists and statisticians such as R.A.
Fisher showed that if multiple Mendelian factors were involved in the expression of an individual trait, they
could produce the diverse results observed. Thomas Hunt Morgan and his assistants later integrated the
theoretical model of Mendel with the chromosome theory of inheritance, in which the chromosomes of cells were
thought to hold the actual hereditary material, and create what is now known as classical genetics, which was
extremely successful and cemented Mendel's place in history.
Mendel's findings allowed other scientists to predict the expression of traits on the basis of mathematical
probabilities. A large contribution to Mendel's success can be traced to his decision to start his crosses only with
plants he demonstrated were true-breeding. He also only measured absolute (binary) characteristics, such as color,
shape, and position of the offspring, rather than quantitative characteristics. He expressed his results numerically
and subjected them to statistical analysis. His method of data analysis and his large sample size gave credibility to
his data. He also had the foresight to follow several successive generations (f2, f3) of his pea plants and record
their variations. Finally, he performed "test crosses" (back-crossing descendants of the initial hybridization to the
initial true-breeding lines) to reveal the presence and proportion of recessive characters. Without his hard work
and careful attention to procedure and detail, Mendel's work could not have had the impact it made on the world
of genetics
Mendel's Laws:
Mendel discovered that when crossing white flower and purple flower plants, the result is not a blend. Rather than
being a mix of the two, the offspring was purple flowered. He then conceived the idea of heredity units, which he
called "factors", one of which is a recessive characteristic and the other dominant. Mendel said that factors, later
called genes, normally occur in pairs in ordinary body cells, yet segregate during the formation of sex cells. Each
member of the pair becomes part of the separate sex cell. The dominant gene, such as the purple flower in
Mendel's plants, will hide the recessive gene, the white flower. After Mendel self-fertilized the F1 generation and
obtained the 3:1 ratio, he correctly theorized that genes can be paired in three different ways for each trait: AA,
aa, and Aa. The capital "A" represents the dominant factor and lowercase "a" represents the recessive. (The last
combination listed above, Aa, will occur roughly twice as often as each of the other two, as it can be made in two
different ways, Aa or aA.)
Mendel stated that each individual has two factors for each trait, one from each parent. The two factors may or
may not contain the same information. If the two factors are identical, the individual is called homozygous for the
trait. If the two factors have different information, the individual is called heterozygous. The alternative forms of
a factor are called alleles. The genotype of an individual is made up of the many alleles it possesses. An
individual's physical appearance, or phenotype, is determined by its alleles as well as by its environment. An
individual possesses two alleles for each trait; one allele is given by the female parent and the other by the male
parent. They are passed on when an individual matures and produces gametes: egg and sperm. When gametes
form, the paired alleles separate randomly so that each gamete receives a copy of one of the two alleles. The
presence of an allele doesn't promise that the trait will be expressed in the individual that possesses it. In
heterozygous individuals the only allele that is expressed is the dominant. The recessive allele is present but its
expression is hidden.
Mendel summarized his findings in two laws; the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment.
Law of Segregation (The "First Law"):The Law of Segregation states that when any individual produces
gametes, the copies of a gene separate so that each gamete receives only one copy. A gamete will receive one
allele or the other. The direct proof of this was later found following the observation of meiosis by two
independent scientists, the German botanist, Oscar Hertwig in 1876, and the Belgian zoologist, Edouard Van
Beneden in 1883. In meiosis the paternal and maternal chromosomes get separated and the alleles with the traits
of a character are segregated into two different gametes.
Law of Independent Assortment (The "Second Law"):The Law of Independent Assortment, also known as
"Inheritance Law" states that alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete
formation. While Mendel's experiments with mixing one trait always resulted in a 3:1 ratio (Fig. 1) between
dominant and recessive phenotypes, his experiments with mixing two traits (dihybrid cross) showed 9:3:3:1 ratios
(Fig. 2). But the 9:3:3:1 table shows that each of the two genes are independently inherited with a 3:1 phenotypic
ratio. Mendel concluded that different traits are inherited independently of each other, so that there is no relation,
for example, between a cat's color and tail length. This is actually only true for genes that are not linked to each
other.
Independent assortment occurs during meiosis I in eukaryotic organisms, specifically metaphase I of meiosis, to
produce a gamete with a mixture of the organism's maternal and paternal chromosomes. Along with chromosomal
crossover, this process aids in increasing genetic diversity by producing novel genetic combinations.
Of the 46 chromosomes in a normal diploid human cell, half are maternally-derived (from the mother's egg) and
half are paternally-derived (from the father's sperm). This occurs as sexual reproduction involves the fusion of
two haploid gametes (the egg and sperm) to produce a new organism having the full complement of
chromosomes. During gametogenesis—the production of new gametes by an adult—the normal complement of
46 chromosomes needs to be halved to 23 to ensure that the resulting haploid gamete can join with another
gamete to produce a diploid organism. An error in the number of chromosomes, such as those caused by a diploid
gamete joining with a haploid gamete, is termed aneuploidy.
In independent assortment the chromosomes that end up in a newly-formed gamete are randomly sorted from all
possible combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes. Because gametes end up with a random mix
instead of a pre-defined "set" from either parent, gametes are therefore considered assorted independently. As
such, the gamete can end up with any combination of paternal or maternal chromosomes. Any of the possible
combinations of gametes formed from maternal and paternal chromosomes will occur with equal frequency. For
human gametes, with 23 pairs of chromosomes, the number of possibilities is 223 or 8,388,608 possible
combinations. The gametes will normally end up with 23 chromosomes, but the origin of any particular one will
be randomly selected from paternal or maternal chromosomes. This contributes to the genetic variability of
progeny.
DNA and chromosomes:The molecular basis for genes is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is
composed of a chain of nucleotides, of which there are four types: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine
(G), and thymine (T). Genetic information exists in the sequence of these nucleotides, and genes exist as
stretches of sequence along the DNA chain. Viruses are the only exception to this rule—sometimes
viruses use the very similar molecule RNA instead of DNA as their genetic material.
DNA normally exists as a double-stranded molecule, coiled into the shape of a double-helix. Each
nucleotide in DNA preferentially pairs with its partner nucleotide on the opposite strand: A pairs with T,
and C pairs with G. Thus, in its two-stranded form, each strand effectively contains all necessary
information, redundant with its partner strand. This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance:
DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a
template for synthesis of a new partner strand.
Genes are arranged linearly along long chains of DNA sequence, called chromosomes. In bacteria, each
cell usually contains a single circular chromosome, while eukaryotic organisms (including plants and
animals) have their DNA arranged in multiple linear chromosomes. These DNA strands are often
extremely long; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length.
The DNA of a chromosome is associated with structural proteins that organize, compact, and control
access to the DNA, forming a material called chromatin; in eukaryotes, chromatin is usually composed
of nucleosomes, segments of DNA wound around cores of histone proteins. The full set of hereditary
material in an organism (usually the combined DNA sequences of all chromosomes) is called the
genome.
While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are
diploid, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene. The two alleles for a
gene are located on identical loci of sister chromatids, each allele inherited from a different parent.
Walther Flemming's 1882 diagram of eukaryotic cell division. Chromosomes are copied, condensed, and
organized. Then, as the cell divides, chromosome copies separate into the daughter cells.
Many species have so called sex chromosomes. They are special in that they determine the sex of the
organism. In humans and many other animals, the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the
development of the specifically male characteristics. In evolution, this chromosome has lost most of its
content and also most of its genes, while the X chromosome is similar to the other chromosomes and
contains many genes. The X and Y chromosomes form a very heterogeneous pair before cell division.
Genes generally express their functional effect through the production of proteins, which are complex
molecules responsible for most functions in the cell. Proteins are chains of amino acids, and the DNA
sequence of a gene (through an RNA intermediate) is used to produce a specific protein sequence. This
process begins with the production of an RNA molecule with a sequence matching the gene's DNA
sequence, a process called transcription.
This messenger RNA molecule is then used to produce a corresponding amino acid sequence
through a process called translation. Each group of three nucleotides in the sequence, called a
codon, corresponds either to one of the twenty possible amino acids in a protein or an instruction
to end the amino acic sequence; this correspondence is called the genetic code.[44] The flow of
information is unidirectional: information is transferred from nucleotide sequences into the
amino acid sequence of proteins, but it never transfers from protein back into the sequence of
DNA—a phenomenon Francis Crick called the central dogma of molecular biology.[
Genetic code:A single amino acid change causes hemoglobin to form fibers.The specific sequence of
amino acids results in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional
structures of proteins are related to their functions. Some are simple structural molecules, like the fibers
formed by the protein collagen. Proteins can bind to other proteins and simple molecules, sometimes
acting as enzymes by facilitating chemical reactions within the bound molecules (without changing the
structure of the protein itself). Protein structure is dynamic; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly
different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian
blood.
The dynamic structure of hemoglobin is responsible for its ability to transport oxygen within mammalian
blood.A single nucleotide difference within DNA can cause a change in the amino acid sequence of a
protein. Because protein structures are the result of their amino acid sequences, some changes can
dramatically change the properties of a protein by destabilizing the structure or changing the surface of
the protein in a way that changes its interaction with other proteins and molecules. For example, sickle-
cell anemia is a human genetic disease that results from a single base difference within the coding region
for the β-globin section of hemoglobin, causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin's
physical properties. Sickle-cell versions of hemoglobin stick to themselves, stacking to form fibers that
distort the shape of red blood cells carrying the protein. These sickle-shaped cells no longer flow
smoothly through blood vessels, having a tendency to clog or degrade, causing the medical problems
associated with this disease.
Some genes are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products—such RNA molecules
are called non-coding RNA. In some cases, these products fold into structures which are involved in
critical cell functions (e.g. ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA). RNA can also have regulatory effect
through hybridization interactions with other RNA molecules (e.g. microRNA).