Carbon ( /ˈkɑrbən/) is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6.

As a member
of group 14 on the periodic table, it isnonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to
form covalent chemical bonds. There are three naturally occurring isotopes, with 12C and 13C being stable,
while 14C is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of about 5730 years.[9] Carbon is one of the few elements
known since antiquity.[10][11] The name "carbon" comes from Latin language carbo, coal.

There are several allotropes of carbon of which the best known are graphite, diamond, and amorphous
carbon.[12] The physical propertiesof carbon vary widely with the allotropic form. For example, diamond is
highly transparent, while graphite is opaque and black. Diamond is among the hardest materials known,
while graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper (hence its name, from the Greek word "to write").
Diamond has a very low electrical conductivity, while graphite is a very good conductor. Under normal
conditions, diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of all known materials. All the allotropic forms
are solids under normal conditions but graphite is the mostthermodynamically stable.

All forms of carbon are highly stable, requiring high temperature to react even with oxygen. The most
common oxidation state of carbon ininorganic compounds is +4, while +2 is found in carbon
monoxide and other transition metal carbonyl complexes. The largest sources of inorganic carbon
are limestones, dolomites and carbon dioxide, but significant quantities occur in organic deposits
of coal, peat, oil andmethane clathrates. Carbon forms more compounds than any other element, with
almost ten million pure organic compounds described to date, which in turn are a tiny fraction of such
compounds that are theoretically possible under standard conditions.[13]

Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, and the fourth most abundant element in
the universe by mass afterhydrogen, helium, and oxygen. It is present in all known lifeforms, and in the
human body carbon is the second most abundant element by mass (about 18.5%) after oxygen.[14] This
abundance, together with the unique diversity of organic compounds and their unusual polymer-forming
ability at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth, make this element the chemical basis of all
known life.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Characteristics
o 1.1 Allotropes
o 1.2 Occurrence
o 1.3 Isotopes
o 1.4 Formation in stars
o 1.5 Carbon cycle
 • 2 Compounds
o 2.1 Organic
compounds
o 2.2 Inorganic
compounds
o 2.3 Organometallic
compounds
• 3 History and etymology
• 4 Production
o 4.1 Graphite
o 4.2 Diamond

• 5 Applications
o 5.1 Diamonds

• 6 Precautions
• 7 See also
• 8 Bonding to Carbon
• 9 References

• 10 External links
Characteristics

Theoretically predicted phase diagram of carbon

The different forms or allotropes of carbon (see below) include the hardest naturally occurring
substance, diamond, and also one of the softest known substances, graphite. Moreover, it has an affinity
for bonding with other small atoms, including other carbon atoms, and is capable of forming multiple
stable covalent bonds with such atoms. As a result, carbon is known to form almost ten million different
compounds; the large majority of all chemical compounds.[13]Carbon also has the
highest melting and sublimation point of all elements. At atmospheric pressure it has no melting point as
its triple point is at 10.8 ± 0.2 MPa and 4600 ± 300 K,[2][3]so it sublimates at about 3900 K.[15][16]

Carbon sublimes in a carbon arc which has a temperature of about 5800 K. Thus, irrespective of its
allotropic form, carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest melting point metals such
as tungsten or rhenium. Although thermodynamically prone to oxidation, carbon resists oxidation more
effectively than elements such as iron and copper that are weaker reducing agents at room temperature.

Carbon compounds form the basis of all known life on Earth, and the carbon-nitrogen cycle provides
some of the energy produced by theSun and other stars. Although it forms an extraordinary variety of
compounds, most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions. At standard
temperature and pressure, it resists all but the strongest oxidizers. It does not react with sulfuric
acid,hydrochloric acid, chlorine or any alkalis. At elevated temperatures carbon reacts with oxygen to form
carbon oxides, and will reduce such metal oxides as iron oxide to the metal. This exothermic reaction is
used in the iron and steel industry to control the carbon content of steel:

Fe3O4 + 4 C(s) → 3 Fe(s) + 4 CO(g)

with sulfur to form carbon disulfide and with steam in the coal-gas reaction:

C(s) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + H2(g).

Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides, such as
the iron carbide cementite in steel, andtungsten carbide, widely used as an abrasive and for
making hard tips for cutting tools.

As of 2009, graphene appears to be the strongest material ever tested.[17] However, the
process of separating it from graphite will require some technological development before it is
economical enough to be used in industrial processes.[18]

The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes:

Graphite is one of the softest materials

Synthetic nanocrystalline diamond is the hardest material known.
known.

Diamond is the ultimate abrasive. Graphite is a very good lubricant.

Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator. Graphite is a conductor of electricity.

Diamond is the best known naturally occurring thermal conductor Some forms of graphite are used
for thermal insulation (i.e. firebreaks
 and heat shields)

Diamond is highly transparent. Graphite is opaque.

Graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal

Diamond crystallizes in the cubic system.
system.

Carbon nanotubes are among the

Amorphous carbon is completely isotropic. most anisotropic materials ever
produced.

Allotropes
Main article: Allotropes of carbon

Atomic carbon is a very short-lived species and, therefore, carbon is stabilized in various multi-
atomic structures with different molecular configurations called allotropes. The three relatively
well-known allotropes of carbon are amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond. Once
considered exotic, fullerenes are nowadays commonly synthesized and used in research; they
include buckyballs,[19][20] carbon nanotubes,[21] carbon nanobuds[22] and nanofibers.[23][24] Several
other exotic allotropes have also been discovered, such aslonsdaleite,[25] glassy carbon,
[26]
carbon nanofoam[27] and linear acetylenic carbon.[28]

 The amorphous form is an assortment of carbon atoms in a non-crystalline, irregular,

glassy state, which is essentially graphite but not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It is
present as a powder, and is the main constituent of substances such
as charcoal, lampblack (soot) and activated carbon.
 At normal pressures carbon takes the form of graphite, in which each atom is bonded
trigonally to three others in a plane composed of fused hexagonal rings, just like those
inaromatic hydrocarbons. The resulting network is 2-dimensional, and the resulting flat
sheets are stacked and loosely bonded through weak van der Waals forces. This gives
graphite its softness and its cleaving properties (the sheets slip easily past one another).
Because of the delocalization of one of the outer electrons of each atom to form a π-cloud,
graphite conducts electricity, but only in the plane of each covalently bonded sheet. This
results in a lower bulk electrical conductivity for carbon than for most metals. The
delocalization also accounts for the energetic stability of graphite over diamond at room
temperature.
 Some allotropes of carbon: a) diamond; b) graphite; c)lonsdaleite; d–f) fullerenes (C60,
C540, C70); g) amorphous carbon; h) carbon nanotube.

 At very high pressures carbon forms the more compact allotrope diamond, having nearly
twice the density of graphite. Here, each atom is bonded tetrahedrally to four others, thus
making a 3-dimensional network of puckered six-membered rings of atoms. Diamond has
the same cubic structure as silicon and germanium and because of the strength of the
carbon-carbonbonds, it is the hardest naturally occurring substance in terms of resistance
to scratching. Contrary to the popular belief that"diamonds are forever", they are in fact
thermodynamically unstable under normal conditions and transform into graphite.[12]But
due to a high activation energy barrier, the transition into graphite is so extremely slow at
room temperature as to be unnoticeable.
 Under some conditions, carbon crystallizes as lonsdaleite. This form has
a hexagonal crystal lattice where all atoms are covalently bonded. Therefore, all properties
of lonsdaleite are close to those of diamond.[25]
 Fullerenes have a graphite-like structure, but instead of purely hexagonal packing, they
also contain pentagons (or even heptagons) of carbon atoms, which bend the sheet into
spheres, ellipses or cylinders. The properties of fullerenes (split
intobuckyballs, buckytubes and nanobuds) have not yet been fully analyzed and represent
an intense area of research innanomaterials. The names "fullerene" and "buckyball" are
 given after Richard Buckminster Fuller, popularizer of geodesic domes, which resemble
the structure of fullerenes. The buckyballs are fairly large molecules formed completely of
carbon bonded trigonally, forming spheroids (the best-known and simplest is the
soccerball-shaped structure C60buckminsterfullerene).[19] Carbon nanotubes are structurally
similar to buckyballs, except that each atom is bonded trigonally in a curved sheet that
forms a hollow cylinder.[20][21] Nanobuds were first published in 2007 and are hybrid bucky
tube/buckyball materials (buckyballs are covalently bonded to the outer wall of a nanotube)
that combine the properties of both in a single structure.[22]
 Of the other discovered allotropes, carbon nanofoam is a ferromagnetic allotrope
discovered in 1997. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung
together in a loose three-dimensional web, in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in six-
and seven-membered rings. It is among the lightest known solids, with a density of about
2 kg/m3.[29] Similarly, glassy carbon contains a high proportion of closedporosity.[26] But
unlike normal graphite, the graphitic layers are not stacked like pages in a book, but have
a more random arrangement. Linear acetylenic carbon[28] has the chemical structure[28] -
(C:::C)n-. Carbon in this modification is linear with sp orbital hybridization, and is
a polymer with alternating single and triple bonds. This type of carbyne is of considerable
interest to nanotechnology as its Young's modulus is forty times that of the hardest known
material - diamond.[30]

Occurrence

Graphite ore
 Raw diamond crystal.

"Present day" (1990s) sea surfacedissolved inorganic carbon concentration (from

the GLODAP climatology)

Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe by mass after hydrogen,
helium, and oxygen. Carbon is abundant in theSun, stars, comets, and in the atmospheres of
most planets. Some meteorites contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when
the solar system was still a protoplanetary disk. Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by
the intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of meteorite impacts.[31]

In combination with oxygen in carbon dioxide, carbon is found in the Earth's atmosphere
(approximately 810 gigatonnes of carbon) and dissolved in all water bodies (approximately
36,000 gigatonnes of carbon). Around 1,900 gigatonnes of carbon are present in
the biosphere.Hydrocarbons (such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas) contain carbon as well
—coal "reserves" (not "resources") amount to around 900 gigatonnes, and oil reserves around
150 gigatonnes. Proven sources of natural gas are about 175 trillion cubic metres
(representing about 105 gigatonnes carbon), but it is estimated that there are also about 900
trillion cubic metres of "unconventional" gas such as shale gas, representing about 540
gigatonnes carbon.[32]

Carbon is a major component in very large masses of carbonate rock

(limestone, dolomite, marble etc.).
Coal is a significant commercial source of mineral carbon; anthracite containing 92–98%
carbon[33] and the largest source (4,000 Gt, or 80% of coal, gas and oil reserves) of carbon in a
form suitable for use as fuel.[34]

Graphite is found in large quantities in the United States (mostly in New

York and Texas), Russia, Mexico, Greenland, and India.

Natural diamonds occur in the rock kimberlite, found in ancient volcanic "necks," or "pipes".
Most diamond deposits are in Africa, notably inSouth Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic
of the Congo, and Sierra Leone. There are also deposits in Arkansas, Canada, the
RussianArctic, Brazil and in Northern and Western Australia.

Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope.
However, though diamonds are found naturally, about 30% of all industrial diamonds used in
the U.S. are now made synthetically.

Carbon-14 is formed in upper layers of the troposphere and the stratosphere, at altitudes of 9–
15 km, by a reaction that is precipitated bycosmic rays. Thermal neutrons are produced that
collide with the nuclei of nitrogen-14, forming carbon-14 and a proton.
Isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of carbon

Isotopes of carbon are atomic nuclei that contain six protons plus a number
of neutrons (varying from 2 to 16). Carbon has two stable, naturally occurring isotopes.[9] The
isotope carbon-12 (12C) forms 98.93% of the carbon on Earth, while carbon-13 (13C) forms the
remaining 1.07%.[9]The concentration of 12C is further increased in biological materials because
biochemical reactions discriminate against 13C.[35] In 1961 theInternational Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted the isotope carbon-12 as the basis for atomic weights.
[36]
Identification of carbon in NMR experiments is done with the isotope 13C.

Carbon-14 (14C) is a naturally occurring radioisotope which occurs in trace amounts on Earth of
up to 1 part per trillion (0.0000000001%), mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial
deposits, particularly of peat and other organic materials.[37] This isotope decays by 0.158
MeV β- emission. Because of its relatively short half-life of 5730 years, 14C is virtually absent in
ancient rocks, but is created in the upper atmosphere (lower stratosphere and
upper troposphere) by interaction of nitrogen with cosmic rays.[38] The abundance of 14C in
the atmosphere and in living organisms is almost constant, but decreases predictably in their
bodies after death. This principle is used in radiocarbon dating, invented in 1949, which has
been used extensively to determine the age of carbonaceous materials with ages up to about
40,000 years.[39][40]
There are 15 known isotopes of carbon and the shortest-lived of these is 8C which decays
through proton emission and alpha decay and has a half-life of 1.98739x10−21 s.[41] The
exotic19C exhibits a nuclear halo, which means its radius is appreciably larger than would be
expected if the nucleus were a sphere of constant density.[42]
Formation in stars
Main articles: Triple-alpha process and CNO cycle

Formation of the carbon atomic nucleus requires a nearly simultaneous triple collision of alpha
particles (helium nuclei) within the core of a giant or supergiant star. This happens in
conditions of > 100 megakelvin temperature and helium concentration that the rapid expansion
and cooling of the early universe prohibited, and therefore no significant carbon was created
during the Big Bang. Instead, the interiors of stars in the horizontal branch transform three
helium nuclei into carbon by means of this triple-alpha process. In order to be available for
formation of life as we know it, this carbon must then later be scattered into space as dust,
in supernova explosions, as part of the material which later forms second, third-generation star
systems which have planets accreted from such dust. The Solar System is one such third-
generation star system.

One of the fusion mechanisms powering stars is the carbon-nitrogen cycle.

Rotational transitions of various isotopic forms of carbon monoxide (e.g. 12CO, 13CO, and C18O)
are detectable in the submillimeter regime, and are used in the study of newly forming
stars in molecular clouds.
Carbon cycle
Main article: Carbon cycle

Diagram of the carbon cycle. The black numbers indicate how much carbon is stored in
various reservoirs, in billions of tons ("GtC" stands for gigatons of carbon; figures are circa
 2004). The purple numbers indicate how much carbon moves between reservoirs each
year. The sediments, as defined in this diagram, do not include the ~70 million GtC of
carbonate rock and kerogen.

Under terrestrial conditions, conversion of one element to another is very rare. Therefore, the
amount of carbon on Earth is effectively constant. Thus, processes that use carbon must
obtain it somewhere and dispose of it somewhere else. The paths that carbon follows in the
environment make up the carbon cycle. For example, plants draw carbon dioxide out of their
environment and use it to build biomass, as in carbon respiration or the Calvin cycle, a process
of carbon fixation. Some of this biomass is eaten by animals, whereas some carbon is exhaled
by animals as carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this
short loop; for example, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans; dead plant or animal
matter may become petroleum or coal, which can burn with the release of carbon, should
bacteria not consume it.[43]
Compounds

Organic compounds
Main article: Organic compound

Structural formula of methane, the simplest possible organic compound.

 Correlation between the carbon cycle and formation of organic compounds. In plants,
carbon dioxide formed by carbon fixation can join with water in photosynthesis (green) to
form organic compounds, which can be used and further converted by both plants and
animals.

Carbon has the ability to form very long chains of interconnecting C-C bonds. This property is
called catenation. Carbon-carbon bonds are strong, and stable. This property allows carbon to
form an almost infinite number of compounds; in fact, there are more known carbon-containing
compounds than all the compounds of the other chemical elements combined except those of
hydrogen (because almost all organic compounds contain hydrogen too).

The simplest form of an organic molecule is the hydrocarbon—a large family of organic
molecules that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. Chain
length, side chains and functional groups all affect the properties of organic molecules.
ByIUPAC's definition, all the other organic compounds are functionalized compounds of
hydrocarbons.[citation needed]

Carbon occurs in all known organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. When united
withhydrogen, it forms various hydrocarbons which are important to industry
as refrigerants,lubricants, solvents, as chemical feedstock for the manufacture
of plastics and petrochemicalsand as fossil fuels.
When combined with oxygen and hydrogen, carbon can form many groups of important
biological compounds including sugars,lignans, chitins, alcohols, fats, and
aromatic esters, carotenoids and terpenes. With nitrogen it forms alkaloids, and with the
addition of sulfur also it forms antibiotics, amino acids, and rubber products. With the addition
of phosphorus to these other elements, it forms DNA and RNA, the chemical-code carriers of
life, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the most important energy-transfer molecule in all
living cells.
Inorganic compounds
Main article: Compounds of carbon

Commonly carbon-containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do not
contain hydrogen or fluorine, are treated separately from classical organic compounds;
however the definition is not rigid (see reference articles above). Among these are the simple
oxides of carbon. The most prominent oxide is carbon dioxide (CO2). This was once the
principal constituent of the paleoatmosphere, but is a minor component of the Earth's
atmosphere today.[44] Dissolved in water, it formscarbonic acid (H2CO3), but as most
compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable.[45]Through
this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized carbonate ions are produced. Some important
minerals are carbonates, notably calcite. Carbon disulfide (CS2) is similar.

The other common oxide is carbon monoxide (CO). It is formed by incomplete combustion,
and is a colorless, odorless gas. The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly polar,
resulting in a tendency to bind permanently to hemoglobin molecules, displacing oxygen,
which has a lower binding affinity.[46][47] Cyanide (CN–), has a similar structure, but behaves
much like a halide ion (pseudohalogen). For example it can form the
nitride cyanogen molecule ((CN)2), similar to diatomic halides. Other uncommon oxides
are carbon suboxide (C3O2),[48] the unstable dicarbon monoxide (C2O),[49][50] carbon
trioxide (CO3),[51][52] cyclopentanepentone (C5O5),[53]cyclohexanehexone (C6O6) ,[53] and mellitic
anhydride (C12O9).

With reactive metals, such as tungsten, carbon forms either carbides (C4–),
or acetylides (C2−2) to form alloys with high melting points. These anions are also associated
with methaneand acetylene, both very weak acids. With an electronegativity of 2.5,[54] carbon
prefers to form covalent bonds. A few carbides are covalent lattices, like carborundum (SiC),
which resembles diamond.
Organometallic compounds
Main article: Organometallic chemistry
Organometallic compounds by definition contain at least one carbon-metal bond. A wide range
of such compounds exist; major classes include simple alkyl-metal compounds
(e.g.tetraethyllead), η2-alkene compounds (e.g. Zeise's salt, and η3-allyl compounds
(e.g. allylpalladium chloride dimer; metallocenes containing cyclopentadienyl ligands
(e.g. ferrocene); andtransition metal carbene complexes. Many metal carbonyls exist
(e.g. tetracarbonylnickel); some workers consider the carbon monoxide ligand to be purely
inorganic, and not organometallic.

While carbon is understood to exclusively form four bonds, an interesting compound containing
an octahedral hexacoordinated carbon atom has been reported. The cation of the compound is
[(Ph3PAu)6C]2+. This phenomenon has been attributed to the aurophilicity of the gold ligands.[55]
History and etymology

Antoine Lavoisier in his youth

The English name carbon comes from the Latin carbo for coal and charcoal,[56] and from hence
also comes the French charbon, meaning charcoal. InGerman, Dutch and Danish, the names
for carbon are Kohlenstoff, koolstof and kulstof respectively, all literally meaning coal-
substance.

Carbon was discovered in prehistory and was known in the forms of soot and charcoal to the
earliest human civilizations. Diamonds were known probably as early as 2500 BCE in China,
while carbon in the form of charcoal was made around Roman times by the same chemistry as
it is today, by heating wood in a pyramid covered with clay to exclude air.[57][58]
 Carl Wilhelm Scheele

In 1722, René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur demonstrated that iron was transformed into
steel through the absorption of some substance, now known to be carbon.[59] In 1772, Antoine
Lavoisier showed that diamonds are a form of carbon, when he burned samples of carbon and
diamond then showed that neither produced any water and that both released the same
amount of carbon dioxide per gram. Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed that graphite, which had
been thought of as a form of lead, was instead a type of carbon.[60] In 1786, the French
scientists Claude Louis Berthollet, Gaspard Monge and C. A. Vandermonde then showed that
this substance was carbon.[61] In their publication they proposed the name carbone (Latin
carbonum) for this element. Antoine Lavoisier listed carbon as anelement in his 1789 textbook.
[62]

A new allotrope of carbon, fullerene, that was discovered in

1985[63] includes nanostructured forms such as buckyballs and nanotubes.[19] Their discoverers
(Curl, Kroto, and Smalley) received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996.[64] The resulting
renewed interest in new forms lead to the discovery of further exotic allotropes,
including glassy carbon, and the realization that "amorphous carbon" is not strictly amorphous.
[26]

Production

Graphite
Main article: Graphite

Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the most
important sources economically are in China, India, Brazil, and North Korea.[65] Graphite
deposits are of metamorphic origin, found in association with quartz, mica and feldspars in
schists, gneisses and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins,
sometimes of a meter or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite
in Borrowdale, Cumberland, England were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the
1800s, pencils were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before
encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the
parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water.

According to the USGS, world production of natural graphite in 2006 was 1.03 million tons and
in 2005 was 1.04 million tons (revised), of which the following major exporters produced: China
produced 720,000 tons in both 2006 and 2005, Brazil 75,600 tons in 2006 and 75,515 tons in
2005 (revised), Canada 28,000 tons in both years, and Mexico (amorphous) 12,500 tons in
2006 and 12,357 tons in 2005 (revised). In addition, there are two specialist producers: Sri
Lanka produced 3,200 tons in 2006 and 3,000 tons in 2005 of lump or vein graphite, and
Madagascar produced 15,000 tons in both years, a large portion of it "crucible grade" or very
large flake graphite. Some other producers produce very small amounts of "crucible grade".

According to the USGS, U.S. (synthetic) graphite electrode production in 2006 was
132,000 tons valued at $495 million and in 2005 was 146,000 tons valued at $391 million, and
high-modulus graphite (carbon) fiber production in 2006 was 8,160 tons valued at $172 million
and in 2005 was 7,020 tons valued at $134 million.

Diamond
Main article: Diamond

Diamond output in 2005

The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is
also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world (see figure).

Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed,
during which care has to be taken in order to prevent larger diamonds from being destroyed in
this process and subsequently the particles are sorted by density. Today, diamonds are
located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of X-ray fluorescence, after which the
final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of X-rays became commonplace, the
separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease
than the other minerals in the ore.[66]
Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in southern India.
[67]
India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately
the 9th century BCE[68] to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these
sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by
Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725.[69]

Diamond production of primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) only started in the 1870s
after the discovery of the Diamond fields in South Africa. Production has increased over time
and now an accumulated total of 4.5 billion carats have been mined since that date.
[70]
Interestingly 20% of that amount has been mined in the last 5 years alone and during the
last ten years 9 new mines have started production while 4 more are waiting to be opened
soon. Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia.[70]

In the United States, diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado, and Montana.[71][72] In
2004, a startling discovery of a microscopic diamond in the United States[73] led to the January
2008 bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana.[74]

Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia, Botswana, Australia and
the Democratic Republic of Congo.[75] In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global
diamond output, reports the British Geological Survey. Australia boasts the richest
diamantiferous pipe with production reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons (41 LT; 46 ST) per
year in the 1990s.[71]

There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest
Territories of Canada, Siberia (mostly in Yakutia territory, for example Mir pipe and Udachnaya
pipe), Brazil, and in Northern and Western Australia. Diamond prospectors continue to search
the globe for diamond-bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes.
Applications

Pencil leads for mechanical pencils are made of graphite (often mixed with a clay or
synthetic binder).
Sticks of vine and compressed charcoal.

A cloth of woven carbon filaments

Silicon carbide single crystal

The C60 fullerene in crystalline form

Tungsten carbide milling bits

Carbon is essential to all known living systems, and without it life as we know it could not exist
(seealternative biochemistry). The major economic use of carbon other than food and wood is
in the form of hydrocarbons, most notably the fossil fuel methane gas and crude
oil (petroleum). Crude oil is used by the petrochemical industry to produce, amongst
others, gasoline and kerosene, through adistillation process, in refineries. Cellulose is a
natural, carbon-containing polymer produced by plants in the form of cotton, linen,
and hemp. Cellulose is mainly used for maintaining structure in plants. Commercially valuable
carbon polymers of animal origin include wool, cashmere and silk.Plastics are made from
synthetic carbon polymers, often with oxygen and nitrogen atoms included at regular intervals
in the main polymer chain. The raw materials for many of these synthetic substances come
from crude oil.

The uses of carbon and its compounds are extremely varied. It can form alloys with iron, of
which the most common is carbon steel. Graphite is combined with clays to form the 'lead'
used in pencilsused for writing and drawing. It is also used as a lubricant and a pigment, as a
molding material inglass manufacture, in electrodes for dry batteries and
in electroplating and electroforming, inbrushes for electric motors and as a neutron
moderator in nuclear reactors.
Charcoal is used as a drawing material in artwork, for grilling, and in many other uses including
iron smelting. Wood, coal and oil are used as fuel for production of energy and space heating.
Gem quality diamond is used in jewelry, and Industrial diamonds are used in drilling, cutting
and polishing tools for machining metals and stone. Plastics are made from fossil
hydrocarbons, and carbon fiber, made by pyrolysis of synthetic polyester fibers is used to
reinforce plastics to form advanced, lightweight composite materials. Carbon fiber is made by
pyrolysis of extruded and stretched filaments of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and other organic
substances. The crystallographic structure and mechanical properties of the fiber depend on
the type of starting material, and on the subsequent processing. Carbon fibers made from PAN
have structure resembling narrow filaments of graphite, but thermal processing may re-order
the structure into a continuous rolled sheet. The result is fibers with higher specific tensile
strength than steel.[76]

Carbon black is used as the black pigment in printing ink, artist's oil paint and water
colours, carbon paper, automotive finishes, India ink and laser printer toner. Carbon black is
also used as a filler inrubber products such as tyres and in plastic compounds. Activated
charcoal is used as anabsorbent and adsorbent in filter material in applications as diverse
as gas masks, water purificationand kitchen extractor hoods and in medicine to absorb toxins,
poisons, or gases from the digestive system. Carbon is used in chemical reduction at high
temperatures. Coke is used to reduce iron ore into iron. Case hardening of steel is achieved by
heating finished steel components in carbon
powder. Carbides of silicon, tungsten, boron andtitanium, are among the hardest known
materials, and are used as abrasives in cutting and grinding tools. Carbon compounds make
up most of the materials used in clothing, such as natural and synthetic textiles and leather,
and almost all of the interior surfaces in the built environment other than glass, stone and
metal.
Diamonds

The diamond industry can be broadly separated into two basically distinct categories: one
dealing with gem-grade diamonds and another for industrial-grade diamonds. While a large
trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different ways.

A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Unlike precious metals such as gold or platinum,
gem diamonds do not trade as a commodity: there is a substantial mark-up in the sale of
diamonds, and there is not a very active market for resale of diamonds.

The market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade
counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity,
making many of the gemological characteristics of diamond, including clarity and color, mostly
irrelevant. This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 100 million carats or
20,000 kg annually), unsuitable for use as gemstones and known as bort, are destined for
industrial use.[77] In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial
applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; another 3 billion carats
(600 metric tons) of synthetic diamond is produced annually for industrial use.[78] The dominant
industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing. Most uses of diamonds
in these technologies do not require large diamonds; in fact, most diamonds that are gem-
quality except for their small size, can find an industrial use. Diamonds are embedded in drill
tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications.
[79]
Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure
experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performance bearings, and limited use in
specializedwindows.[80][81] With the continuing advances being made in the production of
synthetic diamonds, future applications are beginning to become feasible. Garnering much
excitement is the possible use of diamond as a semiconductor suitable to
build microchips from, or the use of diamond as a heat sink in electronics.[82]
Precautions

Worker at carbon black plant inSunray, Texas (photo by John Vachon, 1942)

Pure carbon has extremely low toxicity to humans and can be handled and even ingested
safely in the form of graphite or charcoal. It is resistant to dissolution or chemical attack, even
in the acidic contents of the digestive tract, for example. Consequently once it enters into the
body's tissues it is likely to remain there indefinitely. Carbon black was probably one of the first
pigments to be used for tattooing, and Ötzi the Iceman was found to have carbon tattoos that
survived during his life and for 5200 years after his death.[83] However, inhalation of coal dust or
 soot (carbon black) in large quantities can be dangerous, irritating lung tissues and causing the
congestive lung disease coalworker's pneumoconiosis. Similarly, diamond dust used as an
abrasive can do harm if ingested or inhaled. Microparticles of carbon are produced in diesel
engine exhaust fumes, and may accumulate in the lungs.[84] In these examples, the harmful
effects may result from contamination of the carbon particles, with organic chemicals or heavy
metals for example, rather than from the carbon itself.

Carbon generally has low toxicity to almost all life on Earth, however to some creatures it can
still be toxic, for instance carbon nanoparticles are a deadly toxins to Drosophila[85]

Carbon may also burn vigorously and brightly in the presence of air at high temperatures, as in
the Windscale fire, which was caused by sudden release of stored Wigner energy in the
graphite core. Large accumulations of coal, which have remained inert for hundreds of millions
of years in the absence of oxygen, may spontaneously combust when exposed to air, for
example in coal mine waste tips.

The great variety of carbon compounds include such lethal poisons as tetrodotoxin,
the lectin ricin from seeds of the castor oil plant Ricinus communis,cyanide (CN-) and carbon
monoxide; and such essentials to life as glucose and protein.

boron ← carbon → nitrogen

-
↑
C
↓
Si

6C

Appearance
 clear (diamond) & black (graphite)

Spectral lines of Carbon

General properties

Name, symbol,number carbon, C, 6

Pronunciation /ˈkɑrbən/

Element category nonmetal

Group, period,block 14, 2, p

Standard atomic weight 12.0107(8)g·mol−1

Electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p2 or [He] 2s2 2p2

Electrons pershell 2,4 (Image)

Physical properties

Phase Solid

Density (nearr.t.) amorphous:[1] 1.8–2.1 g·cm−3

Density (nearr.t.) graphite: 2.267 g·cm−3

Density (nearr.t.) diamond: 3.515 g·cm−3

Sublimation point 3915 K3642 ° ,C6588 ° ,F

Triple point 4600 K (4327°C), 10800[2][3] kPa

 Heat of fusion 117 (graphite) kJ·mol−1

Specific heat capacity (25 °C) 8.517(graphite),

6.155(diamond) J·mol−1·K−1

Atomic properties

Oxidation states 4, 3 [4], 2, 1 [5], 0, -1, -2, -3, -4[6]

Electronegativity 2.55 (Pauling scale)

Ionization energies 1st: 1086.5 kJ·mol−1

(more)
2nd: 2352.6 kJ·mol−1

3rd: 4620.5 kJ·mol−1

Covalent radius 77(sp³), 73(sp²), 69(sp) pm

Van der Waals radius 170 pm

Miscellanea

Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[7]

Thermal conductivity (300 K) 119-165 (graphite)

900-2300 (diamond) W·m−1·K−1

Thermal expansion (25 °C) 0.8 (diamond) [8]µm·m−1·K−1

Speed of sound(thin rod) (20 °C) 18350 (diamond) m/s

Young's modulus 1050 (diamond) [8] GPa

Shear modulus 478 (diamond) [8] GPa

Bulk modulus 442 (diamond) [8] GPa

Poisson ratio 0.1 (diamond) [8]

Mohs hardness 1-2 (Graphite)

10 (Diamond)

CAS registry number 7440-44-0

 Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of carbon

iso NA half- DM DE (MeV) DP

life
15
12 12
C 98.9% C is stable with 6 neutrons
13 13
C 1.1% C is stable with 7 neutrons
14
C trace 5730 y β- 0.156 14
N

v•d•e

BONDING IN CARBON – THE COVALENT BOND

In the previous Chapter, we have studied the properties of ionic compounds. We saw that ionic
compounds have high melting and boiling points and conduct electricity in solution or in the molten state.
We also saw how the nature of bonding in ionic compounds explains these properties. Let us now study
the properties of some carbon compounds. Melting and boiling points of some carbon compounds are
given in Table 4.1.

Most carbon compounds are poor conductors of electricity as we have seen in Chapter 2. From the data
on the boiling and melting points of the above compounds, we can conclude that the forces of attraction
between these molecules are not very strong. Since these compounds are largely nonconductors of
electricity, we can conclude that the bonding in these compounds does not give rise to any ions.
In Class IX, we learnt about the combining capacity of various elements and how it depends on the
number of valence electrons. Let us now look at the electronic configuration of carbon. The atomic
number of carbon is 6. What would be the distribution of electrons in various shells for carbon? How many
valence electrons will carbon have?
We know that the reactivity of elements is explained as their tendency to attain a completely filled outer
shell, that is, attain noble gas configuration. Elements forming ionic compounds achieve this by either
gaining or losing electrons from the outermost shell. In the case of carbon, it has four electrons in its
outermost shell and needs to gain or lose four electrons to attain noble gas configuration. If it were to gain
or lose electrons –
1. It could gain four electrons forming C4– anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six
protons to hold on to ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons.
 2. It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require a large amount of energy to
remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons in its nucleus holding on to just
two electrons.
Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with atoms
of other elements. Not just carbon, but many other elements form molecules by sharing electrons in this
manner. The shared electrons ‘belong’ to the outer shells of both the atoms and lead to both atoms
attaining the noble gas configuration. Before going on to compounds of carbon, let us look at some simple
molecules formed by the sharing of valence electrons.
The simplest molecule formed in this manner is that of hydrogen. As you have learnt earlier, the atomic
number of hydrogen is 1. Hence hydrogen has one electron in its K shell and it requires one more
electron to fill the K shell. So two hydrogen atoms share their electrons to form a molecule of hydrogen,
H2. This allows each hydrogen atom to attain the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas,
helium, which has two electrons in its K shell. We can depict this using dots or crosses to represent
valence electrons (Fig. 4.1).
The shared pair of electrons is said to constitute a single bond between the two hydrogen atoms. A single
bond is also represented by a line between the two atoms, as shown in Fig. 4.2.

The atomic number of chlorine is 17. What would be its electronic configuration and its valency? Chlorine
forms a diatomic molecule, Cl2. Can you draw the electron dot structure for this molecule? Note that only
the valence shell electrons need to be depicted.
In the case of oxygen, we see the formation of a double bond between two oxygen atoms. This is
because an atom of oxygen has six electrons in its L shell (the atomic number of oxygen is eight) and it
requires two more electrons to complete its octet. So each atom of oxygen shares two electrons with
another atom of oxygen to give us the structure shown in Fig. 4.3. The two electrons contributed by each
oxygen atom give rise to two shared pairs of electrons. This is said to constitute a double bond between
the two atoms.
Can you now depict a molecule of water showing the nature of bonding between one oxygen atom and
two hydrogen atoms? Does the molecule have single bonds or double bonds?
What would happen in the case of a diatomic molecule of nitrogen? Nitrogen has the atomic number 7.
What would be its electronic configuration and its combining capacity? In order to attain an octet, each
nitrogen atom in a molecule of nitrogen contributes three electrons giving rise to three shared pairs of
electrons. This is said to constitute a triple bond between the two atoms. The electron dot structure of N2
and its triple bond can be depicted as in Fig. 4.4.
A molecule of ammonia has the formula NH3. Can you draw the electron dot structure for this molecule
showing how all four atoms achieve noble gas configuration? Will the molecule have single, double or
triple bonds?
Let us now take a look at methane, which is a compound of carbon. Methane is widely used as a fuel and
is a major component of bio-gas and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG). It is also one of the simplest
compounds formed by carbon. Methane has a formula CH4. Hydrogen, as you know, has a valency of 1.
Carbon is tetravalent because it has four valence electrons. In order to achieve noble gas configuration,
carbon shares these electrons with four atoms of hydrogen as shown in Fig. 4.5.

Such bonds which are formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms are known as
covalent bonds. Covalently bonded molecules are seen to have strong bonds within the molecule, but
intermolecular forces are small. This gives rise to the low melting and boiling points of these compounds.
Since the electrons are shared between atoms and no charged particles are formed, such covalent
compounds are generally poor conductors of electricity.
Allotropes of carbon
The element carbon occurs in different forms in nature with widely varying physical properties. Both
diamond and graphite are formed by carbon atoms, the difference lies in the manner in which the carbon
atoms are bonded to one another. In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms
forming a rigid three-dimensional structure. In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon
atoms in the same plane giving a hexagonal array. One of these bonds is a double-bond, and thus the
valency of carbon is satisfied. Graphite structure is formed by the hexagonal arrays being placed in layers
one above the other.
These two different structures result in diamond and graphite having very different physical properties
even though their chemical properties are the same. Diamond is the hardest substance known while
graphite is smooth and slippery. Graphite is also a very good conductor of electricity unlike other non-
metals that you studied in the previous Chapter.
Diamonds can be synthesised by subjecting pure carbon to very high pressure and temperature. These
synthetic diamonds are small but are otherwise indistinguishable from natural diamonds.
Fullerenes form another class of carbon allotropes. The first one to be identified was C-60 which has
carbon atoms arranged in the shape of a football. Since this looked like the geodesic dome designed by
the US architect Buckminster Fuller, the molecule was named fullerene.