Need for the advent of Calculus in India:

A Journey into the 15th Century

K. Ramasubramanian
Cell for Indian Science and Technology in Sanskrit
Department of HSS, IIT Bombay

August 30, 2008

BMS Engineering College, Bangalore
Organized by: Sri Tirunarayana Trust
Introduction
What is Calculus ?

◮ Calculus is basically study of how things change.

◮ Fundamental idea : Study the change by studying the
“instantaneous” change. (Position of Sun/Moon after one hour)
◮ A typical course in calculus includes:
◮ How to find the instantaneous change ? (Differentiation !)
◮ How to use derivatives to solve problems ?
◮ How to get back the function from the derivative of the
function ? (Integration !)
◮ Expressing functions in terms of Infinite series
◮ Study of the convergence of series, and so on....
◮ These involve the notion of “infinitesmal” and “infinity”.
Unlike Greece, India never had a fear of the infinite or
of the void. Indeed it embraced them.1

1
Charles Seife, Zero:The Biography of a Dangerous Idea, p.20.
Outline

◮ Introduction
◮ Zero and Infinity
◮ Nı̄lakan.t.ha’s discussion of irrationality of π
◮ Sum of an infinite geometric series
◮ Śan.kara’s discussion of the binomial series expansion
◮ Estimation of sums of powers of integers 1 to n for large n
◮ Derivation of the Mādhava series for π
◮ . skāra)
Derivation of end-correction terms (Antya-sam
◮ Mādhava’s series for Rsine and Rversine
◮ Instantaneous velocity and derivatives
◮ Concluding Remarks
Introduction
Broad classification of Knowledge – Mun.d.aka-upanis.ad

Veda
Body of knowledge

Para Apara

Who am I ? Rgveda

Why did I come Yajurveda

into existence ?
Why do I think Samaveda
the way I think ?
Atharvaveda

Siksha
Fudamental Kalpa
and eternal Vyakarana
Nirukta
questions ? Chanda
Jyotisham
Introduction
Celestial Sphere

◮ Great thinkers of all the civilizations – Hindu, Greek,

Arabic2 , Chinese, etc. – wondered how to interpret the
celestial phenomena.
2
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Ibn al-Shatir, . . .
Introduction
Zero and Infinity: ZUa:nya and A:na:nta

E SSENCE OF CALCULUS ≡ Use of infinitesmals/limits3

Greeks could not do this neat little mathematical trick. They didn’t
have the concept of a limit because they didn’t believe in zero. The
terms in the infinite series didn’t have a limit or a destination; they
seemed to get smaller and smaller without any particular end in sight.
As a result the Greeks couldn’t handle the infinite. They pondered the
concept of void but rejected zero as a number, and they toyed with
the concept of infinite but refused to allow infinity – numbers that are
inifinitely small and infinitely large – anywhere near the realm of
numbers. This is the biggest failure in the Greek Mathematics, and it
is the only thing that kept them from discovering calculus. 4

3
One of the passages to “limit” is by summing an infinite series.
4
Charles Seife, Zero:The Biography of a Dangerous Idea, Viking, 2000;
Rupa & Co. 2008.
Fear of zero!
◮ To the ancients,5 zero’s mathematical properties were
inexplicable . . . because zero is different from other numbers
. . . zero always misbehaves. At the very least it does not behave
the way the other numbers do.
◮ Add any number to itself, and it changes. (1 + 1 = 2)
◮ Zero refuses to get bigger. (0 + 0 = 0 ?)6
◮ It also refuses to make any other number bigger.7
◮ Normally multiplication by a number stretches a number line. But
multiplication by zero collapes it.
◮ Dividing by zero destroys the entire framework of mathematics.
. . . it would clash with the fundamental philosophy of the west.8

5
particularly Greeks.
6
This violates the basic principle of numbers called the Axiom of
Archimedes, which says that if you add something to itself enought times, it
will exceed any other number in magnitude.
7
Charles Seife, Zero:The Biography of a Dangerous Idea, p.20.
8
Ibid. p.23.
Introduction
The Infinitesmal and Infinity
◮ This being the scenario in the Greek tradition, it is interesting to
contrast it with the Indian tradition.
◮ the dexterity with which the Hindus could comprehend such
concepts is evident from the śānti-mantra of the Iśāvāsyopanis.ad
that runs as follows:
:pUa:NRa:ma:dH :pUa:NRa:a.ma:dM :pUa:Na.Ra:t,a :pUa:NRa:mua:d:. ya:tea Á

:pUa:NRa:~ya :pUa:NRa:ma.a:d.a:ya :pUa:NRa:mea:va.a:va:a.Za:Sya:tea Á Á

. . . when pūrn.a is taken out of pūrn.a what remains is

also pūrn.a.

◮ The notion of śūnya appears Chandassūtra (c.300 BC).9

◮ Brahmagupta taking about the mathematics of zero observes:

;Da:nRa:NRa:ya.ea:DRa:nMa +Na:mxa:Na:ya.eaH ;Da:na:NRa:ya.ea.=;nta.=M .sa:mEa:k”+.a:m,a Á

10
+Na:mEa:k”+.aM .. a ;Da:na:mxa:Na:Da:na:ZUa:nya:ya.eaH ZUa:nya:m,a Á Á

9
.+pMa ZUa:nyea Á ;a.dõH ZUa:nyea (8.29,30).
10
Introduction
The Infinitesmal and Infinity

The notion of infinity, which is so fundamental for the development of

calculus besides with the notion of infinitesimal, as presented by
Bhāskara in his Bı̄jagan.ita:

A:a.sma:n,
/////// a ;a.va:k+a.=H Ka:h:=e na .=:a:Za.Ea A:a.pa :pra:a.va:e:Sva:a.pa ;
a.naH sxa:tea:Sua Á

ba:hu:Sva:a.pa .~ya.a:t,a l+ya:sxa:a.:k+a:le A:na:nteaY:. yua:tea BUa:ta:ga:Nea:Sua ya:d

õ :t,a ÁÁ

In this quantity that has zero as the divisor (khahara) there

is no change, even if very large quantities [numbers of huge
magnitudes] are inserted or extracted; as no change takes
place in the infinite (ananta) immutable (acyuta) [Brahman]
at the time of destruction or creation of the worlds when
numerous beings are absorbed and put forth.
Introduction
Signal achievements of Kerala Mathematicians

◮ Infinite series expansions for trigonometric functions

x3 x5
sin x = x − + − ..., (1)
3! 5!
◮ Infinite series for π
 
1 1 1
Paridhi = 4 × Vyāsa × 1 − + − + . . . (2)
3 5 7
◮ The derivative of sine inverse function
r dM
d h −1  r i cos M
sin sin M = qR dt (3)
dt R r

2
1 − R sin M
Introduction
Need for the precise values of Sines and Derivatives

◮ In Indian astronomical texts the sine function is described

by the term jyā or jı̄vā
◮ This function is almost ubiquitous. For instance,
◮ In the computation of longitude of the planets,
r 
θ = θ0 − sin−1 sin M (4)
R
◮ The declincation of the Sun is computed using the formula,

sin δ = sin ǫ sin λ, (5)

where ǫ → obliquity of the ecliptic and δ → declination of

the Sun.
◮ Given that the sine function appears in almost all the
computations, a procedure to compute its precise value
becomes all the more important.
Nı̄lakan.t.ha’s discussion of irrationality of π
◮ While discussing the value of π Nı̄lakan.t.ha observes:

:pa:a=; a.Da:v.ya.a:sa:ya.eaH .sa:*ËñÍÉ +;a.ùÁ a-.sa:}ba:nDaH :pra:d:a.ZRa:taH Á . . .

A.a:sa:ŠaH , A.a:sa:Ša:ta:yEa:va A:yua:ta:dõ:ya:sa:*ËñÍÉ +;a: ùÁ a.va:Sk+.}Ba:~ya I+yMa
ñÍ
:pa:a=; a.Da:sa:Ë*É +;a.ùÁ a o+€+a Á ku+.taH :pua:naH va.a:~ta:va.Ma .sa:*ËñÍÉ +;a.ùÁ a:m,a o+tsxa.$ya
A.a:sa:ŠEa:va I+h.ea:€+a ? o+. ya:tea Á ta:~ya.a va:€u+.ma:Za:k”+.a:tva.a:t,a Á ku+.taH ?

The relation between the circumference and the diameter

was expressed. . . .
Approximate: This value (62,832) was stated to be nearly
the circumference of a circle having a diameter of 20,000.
“Why then has an approximate value been mentioned here
leaving behind the actual value?” It is explained [as
follows]. Because it (the exact value) cannot be expressed.
Why?
Nı̄lakan.t.ha’s discussion of irrationality of π
yea:na ma.a:nea:na ma.a:ya:ma.a:na.ea v.ya.a:saH ;
a.na.=;va:ya:vaH .~ya.a:t,a, .tea:nEa:va ma.a:ya:ma.a:naH
:pa:a=; a.DaH :pua:naH .sa.a:va:ya:va O;:va .~ya.a:t,a Á yea:na . a ma.a:ya:ma.a:naH :pa:a=; a.DaH
;
a.na.=;va:ya:vaH .tea:nEa:va ma.a:ya:ma.a:na.ea v.ya.a:sa.eaY:a.pa .sa.a:va:ya:va O;:va; I+ a.ta O;:ke+.nEa:va
ma.a:ya:ma.a:na:ya.eaH o+Ba:ya.eaH ë*:ëÅÁ +a:a.pa na ;
a.na.=;va:ya:va:tvMa .~ya.a:t,a Á
Given a certain unit of measurement (māna) in terms of which
the diameter (vyāsa) specified [is just an integer and] has no
[fractional] part (niravayava), the same measure when
employed to specify the circumference (paridhi) will certainly
have a [fractional] part (sāvayava) [and cannot be just an
integer]. Again if in terms of certain [other] measure the
circumference has no [fractional] part, then employing the same
measure the diameter will certainly have a [fractional] part [and
cannot be an integer]. Thus when both [the diameter and the
circumference] are measured by the same unit, they cannot
both be specified [as integers] without [fractional] parts.
Nı̄lakan.t.ha’s discussion of irrationality of π

ma:h.a:nta:m,a A:Dva.a:nMa ga:tva.a:a.pa A:pa.a:va:ya:va:tva:m,a O;:va l+Bya:m,a Á

;
a.na.=;va:ya:va:tvMa tua ë*:ëÅÁ +a:a.pa na l+Bya:m,a I+ a.ta Ba.a:vaH Á
Even if you go a long way (i.e., keep on reducing the
measure of the unit employed), the fractional part [in
specifying one of them] will only become very small. A
situation in which there will be no [fractional] part (i.e,
both the diameter and circumference can be specified
in terms of integers) is impossible, and this is what is
the import [of the expression āsanna]

What Nı̄lakan.t.ha is trying to explain is the incommensurability

of the circumference and the diameter of a circle. The last line
of the above quote – however small you may choose your unit
of measurement to be, the two quantities will never become
commensurate – is indeed noteworthy.
Sum of an infinite geometric series

◮ In his Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya, while deriving an interesting

approximation for the arc of circle in terms of the jyā
(Rsine) and the śara (Rversine), Nı̄lakan.t.ha presents a
detailed demonstration of how to sum an infinite geometric
series.
◮ The specific geometric series that arises in the above
context is:
 2  n
1 1 1 1
+ + ... + + ... = .
4 4 4 3
◮ Here, we shall present an outline of Nı̄lakan.t.ha’s argument
◮ It is clearly indicative of how the notion of limit was
understood.
Sum of an infinite geometric series B
E
F
◮ AB is cāpa (c) as it A D C
looks like a bow.
◮ AD is jyārdha (j) as it O
half the string.
◮ BD is śara (s) as it
looks like an arrow.

The expression given by Nı̄lakan.t.ha is:

s 
1
c≈ 1+ s2 + j 2 . (6)
3

.sa.ˆyMa:Za.a:a.d:Sua:va:ga.Ra:t,a .$ya.a:va:ga.Ra:Q.•a.a:t,a :pa:dM ;Da:nuaH :pra.a:yaH Á

Sum of an infinite geometric series

The proof of (6) presented by Nı̄lakan.t.ha involves:

1. Repeated halving of the arc-bit, cāpa c to get c1 . . . ci .

2. Finding the corresponding semi-chords, jyā (ji ) and the
Rversines, śara (si )
3. Estimating the difference between the cāpa and jyā at each
step.

If ∆i be the difference between the cāpa and jyā at the i th step,

∆i = ci − ji . (7)

Nı̄lakan.t.ha observation – as the size of the cāpa decreases the

difference also decreases.
Sum of an infinite geometric series
ta.ˆa .$ya.a:. a.a:pa:ya.ea.=;nta.=;~ya :pua:naH :pua:naH nyUa:na:tvMa
. a.a:pa:pa:a=;ma.a:Na.a:pa:tva:kÒ+.mea:Nea: a.ta ta.†a-d:DRa:. a.a:pa.a:na.a:m,a A:DRa.$ya.a:pa.=;}å.pa.=:a
Za.=;pa.=;}å.pa.=:a . a A.a:na.a:ya:ma.a:na.a na ë*:ëÅÁ +.
a. a:d:a.pa :pa:yRa:va:~ya: a.ta A.a:na:ntya.a:d,
;a.va:Ba.a:ga:~ya Á ta:taH ;a.k+.ya:nta:
a*.ãúÁa:t,a :pra:de:ZMa ga:tva.a . a.a:pa:~ya .ja.a:va.a:ya.a:(ãÉa
A:pa.a:ya:~tva:m,a A.a:pa.a:dùÅ;a . a.a:pa.$ya.a:nta.=M . a ZUa:nya:pra.a:yMa l+b.Dva.a :pua:na.=;a.pa
k+.pya:ma.a:na:ma:nta.=;m,a A:tya:pa:ma:a.pa k+Ea:Za:l;a:t,a ¼ea:ya:m,a Á

◮ Generating successive values of the ji s and si s is an

“unending” process as one can keep on dividing the cāpa
into half ad infinitum.
◮ It would therefore be appropriate to recognize that the
difference ∆i is tending to zero and hence make an
“intelligent approximation”, to obtain the value of the
difference between c and j approximately.
Sum of an infinite geometric series
Nı̄lakan.t.ha poses a very important question:

k+.TMa :pua:naH ta.a:va:de:va va:DRa:tea ta.a:va:dõ:DRa:tea . a ?

How do you know that [the sum of the series]
increases only upto that [limiting value] and that
certainly increases upto that [limiting value]?

Proceeding to answer he first states the general result

"    #
1 2
 3
1 1 a
a + + + ... = . (8)
r r r r −1

◮ Infinite Geometric Series – tua:ya:. Ce +d:pa.=;Ba.a:ga:pa.=;}å.pa.=:a

◮ Common Divisor – Ce +d
Sum of an infinite geometric series
He further notes that this result is best demonstrated with r = 4
and obtains the sequence of results,

1 1 1
= + ,
3 4 (4.3)
1 1 1
= + ,
(4.3) (4.4) (4.4.3)
1 1 1
= + , (9)
(4.4.3) (4.4.4) (4.4.4.3)

and so on, which leads to the general result,

"  2  n #  n  
1 1 1 1 1 1
− + + ... + = . (10)
3 4 4 4 4 3

As we sum more terms, the difference between 13 and sum of

powers of 41 , becomes extremely small, but never zero.
What is a Limit ?

Cauchy’s (1821) definition of limit:

If the successive values attributed to the same

variable approach indefinitely a fixed value, such that
finally they differ from it by as little as one wishes, this
latter is called the limit of all the others.11
Nı̄lakan.t.ha in his Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya:

k+.TMa :pua:naH ta.a:va:de:va va:DRa:tea ta.a:va:dõ:DRa:tea . a ?

How do you know that [the sum of the series]
increases only upto that [limiting value] and that
certainly increases upto that [limiting value]?

11
Cauchy, Cours d’Analyse, cited by Victor J. Katz, A History of
Mathematics, Addison Wesley Longman, New York 1998, p. 708.
Binomial series expansion
Śaṅkara Vāriyar in his Kriyākramakarı̄ discusses as follows

c


◮ Consider the product a b
◮ Here, a is called gun.ya, c the gun.aka and b the hāra (these
are all assumed to be positive).
If we consider the ratio bc , there are two possibilities:


◮

◮ Case I: gun.aka > hāra (c > b). In this case we rewrite the
product in the following form
c  (c − b)
a =a+a . (11)
b b
◮ Case II: gun.aka < hāra (c < b). In this case we rewrite the
product as
c  (b − c)
a =a−a . (12)
b b
Binomial series expansion
In the expression a (b−c)
b , if we want to replace the division by b by
division by c, then we have to make a subtractive correction
(śodhya-phala) which amounts to the following equation.

(b − c) (b − c) (b − c) (b − c)
a =a −a × . (13)
b c c b
If we again replace the division by the divisor b by the multiplier c,
 
c (b − c) (b − c) (b − c)
a = a− a −a ×
b c c b
 
(b − c) (b − c) (b − c) c
= a− a −a × ×
c c c b
2
(b − c)2
   
(b − c) (b − c) (b − c)
= a− a − a − a × (14)
c c2 c2 b
2
The quantity a (b−c)
c2
is called dvitı̄ya-phala or simply dvitı̄ya and the
one subtracted from that is dvitı̄ya-śodhya-phala.
Binomial series expansion
Thus, after taking m śodhya-phala-s we get
 2  m−1
c (b − c) (b − c) m−1 (b − c)
a = a−a +a − . . . + (−1) a
b c c c
 m−1
(b − c) (b − c)
+(−1)m a . (15)
c b
Å
O;:vMa mua:huH :P+l;a:na:ya:nea kx +.teaY:a.pa yua: a.€+.taH ë
ëÁ a.pa na .sa:ma.a: a.‹aH Á ta:Ta.a:a.pa ya.a:va:d:pea:[Ma
*:+a:

ãÉa.a:tya.a:nyua:pea:[ya :P+l;a:na:ya:nMa .sa:ma.a:pa:na.a:ya:m,a Á

.sUa:[ma:ta.a:ma.a:pa.a:dù;aÅ :pa.a:(

I+h.ea.†a.=:ea.†a.=;P+l;a:na.Ma nyUa:na:tvMa tua gua:Na:h.a.=:a:nta:=e gua:Na:k+a.=:a:ŠyUa:na O;:va .~ya.a:t,a Á

◮ Still, if we keep including correction terms, then there is logically

no end to the series of correction terms (phala-paramparā).
◮ For achieving a given level of accuracy, we can terminate the
process when the correction term becomes small enough.
◮ If b − c < c, then the successive correction terms keep
decreasing.
Different approximations to π
◮ The Śulba-sūtra-s, give the value of π close to 3.088.
◮ Āryabhat.a (499 AD) gives an approximation which is correct to
four decimal places.
åò
.. a:tua.=; a.Da:k
M Za:ta:ma::gua:NMa d
õ .a:Sa:a.:~ta:Ta.a .sa:h:~:a.a:Na.a:m, a Á

õ :ya:a.va:Sk+.}Ba:~ya.a:sa:Ša.ea vxa.†a:pa:a=;Na.a:hH Á Á
A:yua:ta:d

(100 + 4) × 8 + 62000 62832

π= = = 3.1416
20000 20000
◮ Then we have the verse of Lı̄lāvatı̄12
çÉ
v.ya.a:sea Ba:na:nd.a: a.îå
+;a:h:tea ;a.va:Ba:€e Ka:ba.a:Na:sUa:yERaH :pa:a=; a.DaH .sua:sUa:[maH Á

È
îåeÁ ;a.va:&+teaY:Ta ZEa:lE H .~TUa:l;eaY:Ta:va.a .~ya.a:d, v.ya:va:h.a.=;ya.ea:gyaH
d
õ .a:a.vMa:Za: a.ta*+ ÁÁ

3927
π= = 3.1416 that’s same as Āryabhat.a’s value.
1250
12
Lı̄lāvatı̄ of Bhāskarācārya, verse 199.
Different approximations to π
The commentary Kriyākramakarı̄ further proceeds to present more
accurate values of π given by different Ācāryas.

ñÍ
öÉ÷Å+;a.a:mu
ma.a:Da:va.a:. a.a:yRaH :pua:naH A:ta.ea:pya.a:sa:Ša:ta:ma.Ma :pa:a=; a.Da:sa:* ÙùÅ a:€+.va.a:n,a –
;a.va:bua:Da:nea.ˆa:ga.ja.a:a.h:hu:ta.a:Za:na:aˆa:gua:Na:vea:d:Ba:va.a.=;Na:ba.a:h:vaH Á

13
na:va:
a.na:Ka:vRa:a.ma:tea vxa: a.ta:a.va:~ta:=e :pa:a=; a.Da:ma.a:na:a.ma:dM .ja:ga:du:bRua:Da.aH ÁÁ

The values of π given by the above verses are:

355
π= = 3.141592920353 (correct to 6 places)
113
2827433388233
π= = 3.141592653592 (correct to 11 places)
9 × 1011
The latter one is due to Mādhava.
13
Vibudha=33, Netra=2, Gaja=8, Ahi=8, Hutāśana=3, Trigun . a=3,
11
Veda=4, Bha=27, Vāran . a=8, Bāhu=2, Nava-nikharva=9 × 10 . (The
word nikharva represents 1011 ).
Infinite series for the π – as given in Yukti-dı̄pikā

v.ya.a:sea va.a:a=; a.Da:

a.na:h:tea .+pa:&+tea v.ya.a:sa:sa.a:ga.=:a:a.Ba:h:tea Á
ñÍ
É +;a.a:Ba:€+.m,
;aˆa:Za.=:a:a.d ;a.va:Sa:ma:sa:*
Ë ù a +NMa .~vMa :pxa:Ta:k, kÒ +.ma.a:t,a ku +.ya.Ra:t,a Á Á
Á

The diameter multiplied by four and divided by unity (is found and
stored). Again the products of the diameter and four are divided by
the odd numbers like three, five, etc., and the results are subtracted
and added in order (to the earlier stored result).

◮ vyāse vāridhinihate → 4 × Diameter (vāridhi)

◮ vis.amasaṅkhyābhaktam → Divided by odd numbers
◮ triśarādi → 3, 5, etc. (bhūtasaṅkhyā system)
◮ .rn.am
. svam
. → to be subtracted and added [successively]

 
1 1 1
Paridhi = 4 × Vyāsa × 1 − + − + . . . . . .
3 5 7
Infinite series for the π
E

The triangles OPi−1 Ci and O S

OAi−1 Bi are similar. Hence,

Blown up version
of this quadrant

Ai−1 Bi Pi−1 Ci
= (16) P0 Pi−1 Pi p
OAi−1 OPi−1 Ci
n

Ai−1
Ai

Similarly triangles Pi−1 Ci Pi Bi

and P0 OPi are similar.

Hence, k i−1
ki
Pi−1 Ci OP0
= (17)
Pi−1 Pi OPi

O S
Infinite series for the π
From these two relations we have,
OAi−1 .OP0 .Pi−1 Pi
Ai−1 Bi =
OPi−1 .OPi
OAi−1 OP0
= Pi−1 Pi × ×
OPi−1 OPi
r  r r
= × ×
n ki+1 ki
 r   r2 
= . (18)
n ki ki+1
It is nr that is refered to as khan.d.a in the text. The text also

notes that, when the khan.d.a-s become small (or equivalently n

becomes large), the Rsines can be taken as the arc-bits itself.

:pa:a=; a.Da:Ka:Nq+~ya.a:DRa.$ya.a → :pa:a=;DyMa:Za

i.e., Ai−1 Bi → Ai−1 Ai .
Infinite series for the π
Though the value of 18 th of the circumference has been obtained as

C  r   r 2   r 2   r 2  
r2

= + + + ···+ , (19)
8 n k0 k1 k1 k2 k2 k3 kn−1 kn
there may not be much difference in approximating it by either of the
following expressions:
" !#
C  r   r2   r2   r2  r2
= + + + ···+ (20)
8 n k02 k12 k22 2
kn−1

C  r   r 2   r 2   r 2   2 
r
or = + + + · · · + (21)
8 n k12 k22 k32 kn2
The difference between (21) and (20) will be
 r   r 2   r 2  r   
1
− = 1 − ( k02 , kn2 = r 2 , 2r 2 )
n k02 kn2 n 2
 r  1
= (22)
n 2

Ka:Nq+~ya A:pa:tva:va:Za.a:t,a ta:d:nta.=M ZUa:nya:pra.a:ya:mea:va Á

Infinite series for the π
Thus we have,
n
r r2
 
C X
=
8 n ki2
i=1
n
" 2 #
r ki2 − r 2 r ki2 − r 2
  
X r
= − + − ...
n n r2 n r2
i=1
r 
= [1 + 1 + . . . + 1]
n " #
 r   1   r 2  2r 2  nr 2
− + + ... +
n r2 n n n
" #
r  1   r 4  4  nr 4
2r
+ + + ... +
n r4 n n n
" #
r  1   r 6  6  nr 6
2r
− + + ... +
n r6 n n n
+... . (23)
Infinite series for the π
If we take out the powers of bhujā-khan.d.a nr , the summations involved
are that of even powers of the natural numbers, namely
edādyekottara-varga-saṅkalita, 12 + 22 + ... + n2 ,
edādyekottara-varga-varga-saṅkalita, 14 + 24 + ... + n4 , and so on.
Kerala astronomers knew that
n
X nk +1
ik ≈ , (24)
k +1
i=1

we arrive at the result

 
C 1 1 1
=r 1 − + − + ··· , (25)
8 3 5 7

The above equation is given in the form

 
1 1 1
Paridhi = 4 × Vyāsa × 1 − + − + · · · · · ·
3 5 7
Summation of series (saṅkalita) [Integral ?]
Background
The Āryabhat.ı̄ya of Āryabhat.a has the formula for the saṅkalita-s

(1) n(n + 1)
Sn = 1+ 2 + ···+ n =
2
(2) n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Sn = 12 + 22 + · · · + n2 =
6
 2
(3) 3 3 3 n(n + 1)
Sn = 1 + 2 + ···+ n = (26)
2

From these, it is easy to estimate these sums when n is large.

Yuktibhās.ā gives a general method of estimating the
sama-ghāta-saṅkalita
(k )
Sn = 1k + 2k + · · · + nk , (27)

when n is large. What is presents is a general method of estimation,

which does make use of the actual value of the sum. So, the
argument is repeated even for k = 1, 2, 3, although the result of
summation is well known in these cases.
Summation of series (saṅkalita) [Integral ?]
Kevala-saṅkalita or Mūla-saṅkalita
The following is a citation from the translation of Yuktibhās.ā (6.4.1):

“Now is described the methods of making the summations. At first,

the simple arithmetical progression (kevala-saṅkalita) is described.
This is followed by the summation of the products of equal numbers
(squares). . . .
Here, in this mūla-saṅkalita (basic arithmetical progression), the final
bhujā is equal to the radius. The term before that will be one segment
(khan.d.a) less. The next one will be two segments less. Here, if all the
terms (bhujā-s) had been equal to the radius, . . . .
Now, the smaller the segments, the more accurate (sūks.ma) will be
the result. Hence, do the summation also by taking each segment as
small as an atom (an.u). Here, if it (namely, the bhujā or the radius) is
divided into parārdha (a very large number) parts, to the bhujā
obtained by multiplying by parārdha add one part in parārdha and
multiply by the radius and divide by 2, and then divide by parārdha.
For, the result will practically be the square of the radius divided by
two. . . . ”
Summation of series (saṅkalita) [Integral ?]
Kevala-saṅkalita or Mūla-saṅkalita
The first summation, the bhujā-saṅkalita, may be written in the order
from the final bhujā to the first bhujā as
 nr   (n − 1)r  r 
(1)
Sn = + + .... + . (28)
n n n
Now, conceive of the bhujā-khan.d.a nr as being infinitesimal (an.u) and
at the same time as of unit-measure (rūpa), so that the radius will be
the measure of n, the pada, or the number of terms. Then
(1)
Sn = n + (n − 1) + .... + 1. (29)
If each of the terms were of the measure of radius (n) then the sum
would be nothing but n2 , the square of the radius. But only the first
term is of the measure of radius, the next is deficient by one segment
(khan.d.a), the next by two segments and so on till the last term which
is deficient by an amount equal to radius-minus-one segment.
(1)
Sn = n + [n − 1] + [n − 2].... + [n − (n − 2)] + [n − (n − 1)]
= n.n − [1 + 2 + ... + (n − 1)]. (30)
Summation of series (saṅkalita) [Integral ?]
Kevala-saṅkalita or Mūla-saṅkalita

(1)
Sn = n + [n − 1] + [n − 2].... + [n − (n − 2)] + [n − (n − 1)]
= n.n − [1 + 2 + ... + (n − 1)].
When n is very large, the quantity to be subtracted from n2 is
(1)
practically (prāyen.a) the same as Sn , thus leading to the estimate
(1) (1)
Sn ≈ n2 − Sn , (31)
or, equivalently
n2 (1)
. Sn ≈ (32)
2
It is stated that the result is more accurate, the smaller the size of the
segments (or equivalently the larger the value of n). Śaṅkara Vāriyar
notes in his Kriyākramakarı̄:

Ka:Nq+~ya.a:pa:tvea .sa:tyea:va l+b.Da:~ya .sUa:[ma:ta.a .. a .~ya.a:t,a Á

Summation of series (saṅkalita)
Varga-saṅkalita
With the same convention that nr is the measure of the unit, the
bhujā-varga-saṅkalita (the sum of the squares of the bhujā-s) will be
(2)
Sn = n2 + (n − 1)2 + .... + 12 . (33)
In above expression, each bhujā is multiplied by itself. If instead, we
consider that each bhujā is multiplied by the radius (n in our units)
then that would give raise to the sum
(1)
n [n + (n − 1) + ... + 1] = n Sn . (34)
This sum is exceeds the bhujā-varga-saṅkalita by the amount
(1) (2)
nSn − Sn = 1.(n − 1) + 2.(n − 2) + 3.(n − 3) + . . . + (n − 1).1.
This may be written as
(1) (2)
nSn − Sn = (n − 1) + (n − 2) + (n − 3) + . . . +1
+(n − 2) + (n − 3) + . . . +1
+(n − 3) + . . . +1
+... . (35)
Summation of series (saṅkalita)
Varga-saṅkalita and Saṅkalita-saṅkalita
Thus,
(1) (2) (1) (1) (1)
nSn − Sn = Sn−1 + Sn−2 + Sn−3 + . . . . (36)
(1) n2
For large n, we have already estimated Sn ≈ 2 . Thus,

(1) (2) (n − 1)2 (n − 2)2 (n − 3)2

nSn − Sn = + + + .... (37)
2 2 2
Thus, the right hand side of (36) (the saṅkalita-saṅkalita or the excess
(2)
(1) (2) Sn
of nSn over Sn ) is essentially 2 for large n, so that we obtain
(2)
(1) (2) Sn
nSn − Sn ≈ . (38)
2
(1)
Again, using the earlier estimate (19) for Sn , we obtain the result

(2) n3
Sn ≈ . (39)
3
Thus bhujā-varga-saṅkalita is one-third the cube of the radius.
Summation of series (saṅkalita)
Samaghata-saṅkalita
Thus in general we have,

(k −1) (k ) (n − 1)k (n − 2)k (n − 3)k

nSn − Sn ≈ + + + ...
  k k k
1 (k )
≈ Sn . (40)
k
Rewriting the above equation we have
 
(k ) (k −1) 1 (k )
Sn ≈ nSn − Sn . (41)
k
ñÍ ñÍ
(A:ta öÅ a.l+ta.a:na:ya:na.a:ya ta.†a:tsa:*:+

o;†a.=:ea.†a.=;sa:*:+
öÅ a.l+ta:~ya v.ya.a:sa.a:DRa:gua:Na:na:m,a
ñÍ
O;;k Ë ù
Á
-
É +;a.a:‹a
E +.k+a: a.Da:k+.sa:* .~va.Ma:Za:Za.ea:Da:nMa .. a k+a:yRa:m,a I+ a.ta ;a.~Ta:ta:m,
//// a Á )

Thus we obtain the estimate

(k ) nk +1
Sn ≈ . (42)
(k + 1)
End-correction in the infinite series for π
Expression for the “remainder” terms (Antyasam
. skāra)
ñÍ
É +;a:ya.a.ˆa
ya:tsa:*
Ë ù h.=;Nea kx +.tea ;
a.na:vxa.†a.a &+ a.ta:~tua .ja.a:a.ma:ta:ya.a Á
Á
ñÍ
É +;a.a
ta:~ya.a +.DvRa:ga:ta.a ya.a .sa:ma:sa:*
Ë ù ta:‰;lM gua:Na.eaY:ntea .~ya.a:t,a ÁÁ
Á

ta:d
õ :ga.eRa .+pa:yua:ta.ea h.a.=:ea v.ya.a:sa.a:a.b.Da:Ga.a:ta:taH
/ :pra.a:gva:t,a Á

ta.a:Bya.a:ma.a:‹Ma .~va:mxa:Nea kx +.tea ;Ga:nea [ea:pa O;:va k+=;Na.a:yaH ÁÁ

l+b.DaH :pa:a=; a.DaH .sUa:[maH ba:hu:kx +.tva.ea h.=;Na:ta.eaY: a.ta:sUa:[maH .~ya.a:t,a ÁÁ

◮ yatsaṅkhyayātra haran.e → Dividing by a certain number (p)

◮ nivr.ttā hr.tistu → if the division is stopped
◮ jāmitayā → being bored (due to slow-convergence)
 
p+1
2
Remainder term =  2
p+1
2 +1

◮ labdhah. paridhih. sūks.mah. → the circumference obtained would

be quite accurate
End-correction in the infinite series for π
When does the end-correction give exact result ?
The discussion by Śaṅkara Vāriyar is almost in the form of a
engaging dialogue between the teacher and the taught and
commences with the question, how do you ensure accuracy.

ñÍ
É +;a.a:h.=;Ne
k+.TMa :pua:na.=:ˆa mua:hu:a.vRa:Sa:ma:sa:*
Ë ù a:na l+Bya:~ya :pa:a=;DeaH
Á

A.a:sa:Ša:tva:ma:ntya:sMa:~k+a:=e;Na A.a:pa.a:dù;a:te
Å a ? o+. ya:tea Á

ta.ˆa ta.a:va:du:€++pa:ssMa:~k+a.=H .sUa:[ma.ea na :vea: a.ta :pra:Ta:mMa ;

a.na.+pa:Na.a:ya:m,a Á

-
ta:d:Ta ya:ya.a:k+.ya.a ;
a.. a:d
, ;a.va:Sa:ma:sMa:K.ya:ya.a h.=;Nea kx +.tea :pxa:Ta:k, .sMa:~k+a.=M

k -
u +.ya.Ra:t,a Á A:Ta ta:du.†a.=;a.va:Sa:ma:sMa:K.ya.a h.=;Na.a:na:nta.=M .. a :pxa:Ta:k, .sMa:~k+a.=M

ku +.ya.Ra:t,a Á O;:vMa kx +.tea l+b.Da.Ea :pa:a=;Da.a ya:a.d tua:ya.Ea Ba:va:taH ta:a.hR .sMa:~k+a.=H

.sUa:[ma I+ a.ta ;
a.na:Na.Ra:ya:ta.a:m,a Á k+.Ta:m,a ?
How do you say that you get the value close to the
circumference by using antya-sam. skāra, instead of
repeatedly dividing by odd numbers? Let me explain this.
End-correction in the infinite series for π
When does the end-correction give exact result ?
1
The argument is as follows: If the correction term ap−2 is applied after
p−1
odd denominator p − 2 (with 2 is odd), then

π 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 − + − ...− + . (43)
4 3 5 7 p − 2 ap−2
l
On the other hand, if the correction term ap , is applied after the odd
denominator p, then

π 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 − + − ...− + − . (44)
4 3 5 7 p − 2 p ap

If the correction terms are exact, then both should yield the same
result. That is,
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − or + = , (45)
ap−2 p ap ap−2 ap p

is the condition for the end-correction to lead to the exact result.

End-correction in the infinite series for π
Need for the end-correction terms

◮ The series for π

4 is an extremely slowly convergent series.
◮ To obtain value of π which is accurate to 4-5 decimal
places we need to consider millions of terms.
◮ To circumvent this problem, Mādhavaseems to have found
. skāra”
an ingenious way called “antya-sam
◮ It essentially consists of –
◮ Terminating the series are a particular term if you get
boredom (jāmitayā).
◮ Make an estimate of the remainder terms in the series
◮ Apply it (+vely/-vely) to the value obtained by summation
after termination.
◮ The expression provided to estimate the remainder terms
is noted to be quite effective.
◮ Even if a consider a few terms (say 20), we are able to get
π values accurate to 8-9 decimal places.
Error-minimization in the evaluation of Pi

10−4 k 1

k 2

−5
10

10−6

10−7

or

E
r

r
10−8

10−9

10−10

10−11

2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0

N
Construction of the Sine-table
◮ A quadrant is divided into 24 equal parts, so that each arc bit
α = 90 ◦ ′
24 = 3 45 = 225 .
′

◮ A procedure for finding R sin iα, i = 1, 2, . . . 24 is explicitly

given. Pi Ni are known.
◮ The R sines of the intermediate angles are determined by
interpolation (I order or II order).

P 24 P 23
P 22

P3

P2

P1

P0
O N23 N22 N3 N2 N1
Recursion relation for the construction of sine-table
Āryabhat.ı̄ya’s algorithm for constructing of sine-table

◮ The content of the verse is equivalent to the relation:

R sin iα
R sin(i + 1)α − R sin iα = R sin iα − R sin(i − 1)α − .
R sin α
◮ In fact, the values of the 24 Rsines themselves are explicitly
noted in another verse.
◮ The exact recursion relation for the Rsine differences is:

R sin(i+1)α−R sin iα = R sin iα−R sin(i−1)α−R sin iα 2(1−cos α).

1
◮ Approximation used by Āryabhat.a is 2(1 − cos α) = 225 .
1
◮ While, 2(1 − cos α) = 0.0042822, 225 = 0.00444444.
◮ In the recursion relation provided by Nı̄lakan.t.ha we find
1 1
225 → 233.5 (= 0.0042827) .
Infinite series for the sine function

◮ The verses giving the ∞ series for the sine function is14 –
;
a.na:h:tya . a.a:pa:va:geRa:Na . a.a:pMa ta.†a:tP+l;a:
a.na . a Á
h:=e;t,a .sa:mUa:l+yua:gva:gERaH ;aˆa.$ya.a:va:gRa:h:tEaH kÒ+.ma.a:t,a Á Á
. a.a:pMa :P+l;a:
a.na . a.a:Da.eaY:Da.ea nya:~ya.ea:pa:yRua:pa:a= tya.jea:t,a Á
.ja.a:va.a:‹yEa, .sa:ñÍ*:çÅÅ" +h.eaY:~yEa:va ;a.va:dõ.a:
a.na:tya.a:a.d:na.a kx+.taH Á Á
◮ N0 = Rθ D0 = 1
◮ N1 = Rθ × (Rθ)2 Ni+1 = Ni × (Rθ)2
◮ D1 = R 2 (2 + 22 ) Di = Di−1 × R 2 (2i + (2i)2 )
◮ .ja.a:va.a = N0
D0 − [N 1 N2 N3
D1 − ( D2 − { D3 − . . . })]

◮ .ja.a:va.a:‹yEa = For obtaining the jı̄va (Rsine)

14
Yuktidı̄pikā (16th cent) and attributed to Mādhava (14th cent. AD).
Infinite series for the sine function

◮ Expressing the series using modern notation as described

as described in the above verse –
Rθ × (Rθ)2 Rθ × (Rθ)2 × (Rθ)2
Jı̄vā = Rθ − + − ...
R 2 (2 + 22 ) R 2 (2 + 22 ) R 2 (4 + 42 )
◮ Simplifying the above we have –

(Rθ)3 (Rθ)5 (Rθ)7

Jı̄vā = Rθ − + − +. . .
R 2 × 6 R 4 × 6 × 20 R 6 × 6 × 20 × 42
◮ Further simplifying –

θ3 θ5 θ7
 
Jı̄vā = R θ − + − + . . . = R sin θ
3! 5! 7!
◮ Thus the given expression ≡ well known sine series.
The importance of infinite series in the development of
modern science
◮ The pivotal role played by Newtonian physics in the
development of modern science is too well known.
◮ That the discovery of infinite series expansion is the key to
attain pinnacle to this has been succinctly put forth by
V. I. Arnol’d15 :
Newton’s basic discovery was that everything had to
be expanded in infinite series . . . Newton, although did
not strictly prove convergence, had not doubts about it
. . . What did Newton do in analysis? What was his
main mathematical discovery? Newton invented Taylor
series, the main instrument of analysis.16

15
One of the greatest mathematicians of recent times.
16
V. I. Arnol’d, Barrow and Huygens, Newton and Hooke, trans.
E. J. E. Primrose, Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, 1990, pp.35-42. Cited by
C. K. Raju, PHISPC, Cultural Foundations of Mathematics Part 4, Pearson
Longman, 2007, p.xxxv.
Instantaneous velocity of a planet
A (direction of mandocca)
The mandaphala or “equation of centre” correction P (planet)

Q
◮ P0 – mean planet θ0 − ϖ
P0
◮ P – true planet θ0 θ MS

◮ θ0 – mean longitude ϖ Γ
O
◮ θM S – true longitude
called the
manda-sphut.a.

◮ The true longitude of the planet is given by

r 
θ = θ0 ± sin−1 sin M
R
where M (manda-kendra) = θ0 − longitude of apogee
◮ The second term in the RHS, known as manda-phala, takes care
of the eccentricity of the planetary orbit.
Instantaneous velocity of a planet
Derivative of sin−1 function

The instantaneous velocity of the planet called tātkālikagati is

given by Nı̄lakan.t.ha in his Tantrasaṅgraha as follows:

. a:ndÒ;ba.a:hu:P+l+va:gRa:Za.ea: a.Da:ta:aˆa.$ya:k+a:kx+. a.ta:pa:de:na .sMa:h:=e;t,a Á

ta.ˆa k+ea: a.f:P+l+
a.l+ a.‹a:k+a:h:ta.Ma :ke+.ndÒ;Bua: a.€+.a=;h ya:ƒa l+Bya:tea Á Á
If M be the manda-kendra, then the content of the above verse
can be expressed as

r dM
d h −1  r i cos M
sin sin M = qR dt (46)
dt R r

2
1 − R sin M
Instantaneous velocity of a planet
Derivative of the ratio of two functions

Some of the astronomers in the Indian tradition including Munjāla had

proposed the expression for mandaphala to be
r
sin M
∆θ =  R , (47)
r
1 − cos M
R
According to Acyuta, the correction to the mean velocity of a planet to
obtain its instantaneous velocity in this case is given by
r 2!
r sin M
R

cos M + r
!
R 1− cos M
R dM
 r  , (48)
1 − cos M dt
R
which is nothing but the derivative of (47).
Concluding Remarks

◮ It is clear that major discoveries in the foundations of calculus,

mathematical analysis, etc., did take place in Kerala School
(14-16 century).
◮ Besides arriving at the infinite series, that the Kerala
astronomers could manipulate with them to obtain several forms
of rapidly convergent series is indeed remarkable.
◮ While the procedure by which they arrived at many of these
results are evident, there are still certain grey areas (derivative
of sine inverse function, ratio of two functions)
◮ Many of these achievements are attributed to Mādhava, who
lived in the 14th century (his works ?).
◮ Whether some of these results came to be known to the
European mathematicians ? ? . . . .
Thanks!

Isn’t enough for one Lecture ?

T HANK YOU !