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A S P E C T S O F E N G L I S H S P E L L I N G

The fact that a word is written with double letters, such as:
affect inn parallel
allow keep succeed
door seen tomorrow,
the past and the past participle forms of the irregular verbs, as well as the comparative of
superiority and the superlative relative of the irregular adjectives / adverbs are not the
subject of this paper regarding spelling in English.
What follows refers to the cases the spelling of a word is changed under certain
circumstances, such as:
1. – The common nouns derived from proper names are written with initial
small letter and even other changes:
a bedlam – un azil de nebuni (St. Mary of Bethlehem, vechi spital de alienaţi din Londra)
china – porţelan
currents – stafide de Corint
etons – uniforma colegiului Eton
holland – olandă
jersey – jerseu (Jersey – insulă în Canalul Mânecii)
an ottoman – canapea, divan, sofa
oxfords – pantofi de sport care au şireturi
sherry – vin de Xerex
an ulster – pardesiu lung şi larg
a johnny – băiat de bani gata
a mackintosh – Charles Mackintosh - inventatorul cauciucului din care s-au confecţionat primele haine de
ploaie
sandwich – 4th Earl of Sandwich is said to have eaten only slices of bread and meat while gaming for 24
hours
a teddy bear – urs de pluş (Theodore Roosevelt, fost preşedinte al SUA, – mare vânător de urşi)
a tommy – soldat simplu în armata engleză (Tommy Atkins, nume completat ca model în formularele
oficiale)
a victoria – trăsură cu patru roţi (Queen Victoria)
a volt – Alessandro Volta – Italian physicist, 1745 – 1827
a watt – watt (James Watt, 1736 – 1819, Scottish engineer and inventor)

B U T
a Land Rover – maşină de teren
an Oscar – statueta, premiul Oscar
a Caesar – dictator, tiran
a Grigorescu – tablou de Grigorescu
a Iago – intrigant
a Judas – trădător de prieteni
a Shylock – cămătar nemilos (a character from The Merchant of Venice)
a Venus – o femeie foarte frumoasă

2. a. – The common nouns used as religious rank or appellatives, names of relations


used as names of the members of a family are written with initial capital letters:

– Brother John – Father


– Mother Superior – Mother
– Mr. Brown – Aunt
– Mrs. Brown – Miss Brown
– Sir Laurence (Olivier) – Lady Joan (never Lady Olivier)
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b. – Names of professions used as a title:
– Doctor – Dr. Brown – Queen Ann
– Professor – Prof. Brown – Knight John
– Captain – Teacher Brown – Earl Sandwich
B U T never
– Mr. Dr. Brown
– Mrs. Prof. Chips
though very formal, for a very high level, one can say:
– Mr. President
– Mr. Chairman
– Mr. Governor
c. – When used commonly, words such as sir, lady, madam are written with initial
small letter:
– Thank you, madam!
– I say, sir! (Ascultă, domnule! / Ei, domnu’! / O clipă, domnule!)
– The lady in blue is your mother, isn’t she?
B U T when these words are used in the title of a letter they are written with initial
capital letter:
– (Dear) Sir, / Madam,
N. B. – remember that in this case “Dear” does not mean “darling”, “beloved”, but “esteemed”,
“respected”.
– Sire – very formal, showing respect for the king, is always written with initial capital letter.
When it is used as a common noun (naming the father of a four-legged animal, especially
a horse /DAM is used for the mother/) it is written with initial small letter:
Gypsy, sired by “Lightning”, won the race.
3. – The adjectives derived from the name of a country, as well as all proper names
are written with initial capital letters:
– England English the English
– Romania Romanian the Romanians
– John Monday December
– Oxford the Danube the Alps
4. – Words bearing a meaning used in titles of articles or books, names of
newspapers are written with initial capital letter:
– Love’s Labour’s Lost – The Observer – Of Mice and Men
– A Day to Remember – English Grammar – Gone with the Wind
5. a. – The ending –s for the plural of the nouns as well as for the 3 rd person singular
in the Simple Present Tense – affirmative:
– book books he speaks
– eye eyes he sits
b. – The ending –es when the nouns / verbs end in sibilants (consoane şuierătoare)
such as [s], [z], [ ], [], [d ], [t]:
– bus buses he passes
– class classes he boxes
– fox foxes he watches

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BUT
calx [‘klks] – calces [‘klsi:z] – cavitate, organ în formă de cupă
crux [‘krks] – cruces [‘krsi:z] – dificultate, (fig.) miez, cheie
helix [‘hi:liks] – helices [‘helisi:z] – spirală
ilex [‘aileks] – ilices [‘ailisi:z] – plantă ilex
matrix [‘meitriks] – matrices [‘meitrisi:z]– mitră, uter
vortex [‘v :teks] – vortices [‘v :tisi:z] – vârtej, vâltoare
Some nouns ending in –x either get –es, or change –x into –c– and get –es:
cicatrix cicatrixes cicatrices
index indexes indices
c. – When the final –ch are pronounced [k] or [] (the Romanian final [h]), the ending
–s is used, and not –es:
Czech [tek] – Czechs
epoch [‘i:p k] – epochs
loch [l ] – lochs
patriarch [‘peitria:k] – patriarchs
stomach [‘stm k] – stomachs
d. – Some nouns ending in –i get either –s or –es:
alkali alkalis alkalies
macaronimacaronis (aliment) macaronies (filfizon)
taxi taxis taxies
e. – When the final –y is preceded by a consonant it changes into –i– before getting
an ending, except for the endings –ing, –ish, and those beginning with a consonant:
baby – babies baby – babyish
cry – crying sky – skies
country – countrylike fly – flying
try – tries – tried
B U T
dry – drier – the driest – drily (uscat)
– dryer – the dryest – dryly
shy – shier – the shiest – shily (fricos, sperios)
– shy – the shyest – shyly
sly – slier – the sliest – slily (viclean, şiret)
– slyer – the slyest – slyly
spry – sprier – the spriest (vioi, sprinten)
– spryer – the spryest
wry – wrier – the wriest (sucit, strâmb)
– wryest – the wryest
f. – The proper nouns as well as nouns derived from other parts of speech do not
change the final –y preceded by a consonant:
our two Lucys stand–bys carefullys
all the Henrys possiblys whys
BUT
Alleghany Alleghanies (river in W Pennsylvania)
Germany Germanies

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g. – When the final –y is preceded by a vowel, it is maintained when adding an
ending:
boy boys
say he says
play he plays, he played
B U T
colloquy – colloquies (convorbire, dialog)
soliloquy – soliloquies (monolog)
day – daily
gay – gaily (and also gayly)
R E M E M B E R
The final –ie turns into –y– when adding –ing:
die – dying
lie – lying
tie – tying
h. – Words ending in –o preceded by a consonant get –es, and not –s:
cargo – cargoes do – he does
echo – echoes go – he goes
hero – heroes negro – negroes
popato – popatoes tomato – tomatoes
B U T
canto – cantos dynamo –dynamos
magneto – magnetos mosquito – mosquitos
photo – photos piano – pianos
Some words of this type get either –s, or –es:
banjo – banjos – banjoes
bravo – bravos – bravoes (bandit)
domino – dominos – dominoes (costum de bal mascat)
flamingo – flamingos – flamingoes
halo – halos – haloes
motto – mottos – mottoes
zero – zeros – zeroes
i. – Words ending in –o preceded by a vowel get only –s:
cuckoo – cuckoos radio – radios
kangaroo – kangaroos studio – studios
j. – Nouns ending in –f, or –fe get –s:
chief – chiefs proof – proofs
cliff – cliffs roof – roofs
dwarf – dwarfs fife – fifes (fluier, trişcă)
grief – griefs still–life – still–lifes
gulf – gulfs strife – strifes (concurenţă, competiţie)

B U T
Some of the nouns ending in –f, or –fe turn –f, or –fe into –v– and add –es for their
plural form:
beef – beeves self – selves
calf – calves shelf – shelves
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elf – elves thief – thieves
half – halves wolf – wolves
leaf – leaves life – lives
loaf – loaves knife – knives
N. B.
Some nouns of this type get both –s and –es:
hoof – hoofs – hooves
scarf – scarfs – scarves
staff – staffs – staves
wharf – wharfs – wharves
7. – Nouns with two forms in the plural having distinct meanings:
brother – brothers
– brethren (confraţi – de regulă de aceeaşi religie)
cow – cows
– kine (arhaic pentru vaci, vite)
die – dies (matriţe pentru monede)
– dice (zaruri)
genius – geniuses (oameni de geniu)
– genii (spirite, duhuri)
index – indexes (indexuri, în cărţi)
– indices (indici, în matematică, chimie etc.)
medium – mediums (mediu – ca persoană)
– media (mijloace de culturalizare; mass media – presă, radio,
TV; multimedia – mijloace multiple)
penny – pennies (monede de câte un penny)
– pence (valoarea în penny)
staff – staffs (state majore, personal angajat)
– staves (portative)
8. a. – The final silent –e drops when adding any ending:
have – having
like – liking – liked (but likes)
live – living – lived (but lives)
love – loving – loved – lovable (but loves)
blue – bluish
bride – bridal
fame – famous
lie – liar
race – racy (păstrător al caracterului de baştină; care îşi trădează / dezvăluie originea )
write – writer
B U T
blue – bluey queue – queueing
canoe – canoeing see – seeing
dye – dyeing shoe – shoeing
eye – eyeing singe – singeing (a pârli, a arde uşor)
glue – gluey toe – toeing
The final silent –e is also kept before endings beginning with a consonant.
care – careless hope – hopeful
entire – entireless love – lovely
home – homelike
B U T
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due – duly
true – truly
b. – The final –l is doubled when adding an ending, except the ending –s.
compel – compelling – compeller – compellative
control – controllable
excel – excellent – excellency
label – labelling – labelled
marvel – marvellous
rebel – rebellious
travel – travelling
unequal – unequalled
B U T
unparalleled (with only one –l–)
boil – boiled – boiling
trawl – trawled – trawling (a trage un traul pe fund, a pescui cu traulul)
c. – The final –le is dropped when adding –ly is added.
able – ably nimble – nimbly (agil, iute, vioi, sprinten)
comfortable – comfortably noble – nobly
double – doubly probable – probably
feeble – feebly simple – simply
humble – humbly subtle – subtly
d. – The final –ac and –ic turn into –ack– and –ick– when adding –ed.
to bivouac – bivuacked
to mimic – mimicked
to traffic – trafficked
9. a. – One–syllable words ending in a consonant preceded by a short vowel double
the final consonant when adding an ending.
big – bigger pet – petted
dig – digger red – reddish
fat – fatter sit – sitting
fit – fitted snap – snappish
fog – foggy star – starry
fun – funny sun – sunny
gas – gassy up – upper
b. – Two–syllable words with the stress on the second syllable double the final
consonant preceded by a short vowel, when getting an ending.
admit [ d’mit] – admittance – admitted
begin [bi’gin] – beginner – beginning
forget [f ’get] – forgettable – forgetting – forgetter
occur [ ’k :] – occurrence – occurrent – occurring –occurred
recur [re’k :] – recurrent
B U T
kidnap [’kidnp] – kidnapped
worship [’w :ip] – worshipped – worshipper
to cap a bottle – bottle–capped
10. – The spelling with apostrophe (’)
a. – The synthetic genitive (’s)
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Tom’s bike the boy’s toys
today’s news the day before’s paper
in a minute or so’s time my mother in law’s words
in Richard III’s reign the Edison Co.’s records
at the baker’s for peace’ sake
for goodness’ sake the sun’s heat
the world’s end the water’s bank
Land’s end life’s joy
at death’s door the night’s coolness
London’s streets the vessel’s crew
her heart’s desire neither’s name
another’s claim one’s friends
nobody’s fault everyone’s wish
Who else’s proposal shall we consider now?
b. – The plural of letters and optionally the plural of numbers or of words, others than
nouns.
They wonder of your so many 2’s (two’s) and 3’s (three’s).
Your 6’s (6s) are too many.
Don’t roll your r’s.
your pro’s and con’s (or pros and cons)
in the 1970’s (or 1970s)
t’s i’s 7’s 20’s
A L S O R E M E M B E R
the asides of history
the ayes and noes (in Parliament)
There was an exchange of how–do–you–do’s.
Her aggressive use of repeated I’s, myself’s, my’s and mine’s.
Your yes’s and no’s upset everyone there.
He speaks with too many if’s and but’s.
Dot your i’s and cross your t’s.
the he’s and she’s of this world
I can’t put up with her why’s and wherefore’s.
c. – The contracted form of auxiliaries or modals and of NOT.
I am  I’m we should  we’d
he is  he’s you are  you’re
he will  he’ll do you  d’you
am not  aren’t should not  shouldn’t
cannot  can’t would not  wouldn’t
could not couldn’t may not  mustn’t
will not  won’t might not  mustn’t
shall not  shan’t ought not  oughtn’t
N. B.
In its full form, NOT together with CAN are always written one word and not
separately, that is “cannot”, and never “can not”
11. – Other situations
a. – syncope, that is the drop of some sounds inside a word
bicycle  bike
fantasy  fancy

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microphone  mike
b. – other cases
five – fifteen – fifty – fifth
four – forty – innocent – ninny
nine – ninth twelve – twelfth
c. – compression of some words
American + Canadian  Americanadian
American + Indian  Amerind
fourteen + nights  fortnight
d. – abbreviation
apt  apartment pram  perambulant
Brm  Birminghan G. P.  General Practitioner
cap  capital (Rom.– M. P.  Member of Parliament
majusculă)
flu  influenza P. G.  Paying Guest
sonar  SO(und) N(aviagation A(nd) R(anging) (SONAR)
laser  L(ight) A(mplification by) S(timulated) E(mission of) R(adiation)
radar  RA(dio) D(etecting) A(nd) R(anging)
The abbreviation used as nouns, as well as those ending in –o, get either s or ’s .
Ph. D. (doctor of philosophy) Ph. Ds Ph. D’s
B. A. (Bachelor of Arts) B. As B. A’s
Co (company) Cos
bro (brother) bros
No (number) Nos / No’s
P. O. (Post Office) P. Os / P. O’s
(Postal Order)
The abbreviations consisting in isolated letters double the letter for the plural.
c (chapter) cc (chapters)
p (page) pp (pages)
v (verse) vv (verses)
12. – Nouns with foreign plural (few examples):
alumna – alumnae (absolvent al unei şcoli / universităţi)
alumnus – alumni ,, ,, ,, ,,
criterion – criteria
datum – data (dată–element, faptă)
erratum – errata
phenomenon – phenomena
stimulus – stimuli
analysis – analyses
basis – bases
crisis – crises
emphasis– emphases
13. – When a word begins with the letter the prefix which is used ends in, both
the final and the initial letter are used.
co + operation  cooperation
dis + satisfy  dissatisfy

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dis + sent  dissent
dis + similar  dissimilar
dis + solve  dissolve
mis + shapen  misshapen (diform, urât, pocit, hâd)
mis + spell  misspell
pre + eminent  preeminent
14. – Some differences between American English and British English
spelling:
a. – the British English ending –our is spelled –or in American English;
British English American English
armour armor
colour color
favour favor
humour humor
neighbour neighbor
splendour splendor
b. – the British English ending –re is written –er in American English;
British English American English
centre center
fibre fiber
metre meter
sombre somber
theatre theater
c. – the British English ending –ce is written –se in American English;
British English American English
advice advise
practice practise
d. – other examples
British English American English
as new as nu
daylight dalite
dialogue dialog
flight flite
luggage lugage
socks sox
thorough thoro
though tho
tonight tonite
traveller traveler
N. B.
The examples given do not represent all the cases existing in the two languages.

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