AIR

POLLU
TION
CAUSES, EFFECTS
AND REDUCTION
EFFORTS

Guided By
 Acknowledgment

I hereby wish to express my deep gratitude to

_______________ for her valuable guidance, mellow
criticism, and moral support during the work.

I also want to thank the library and other staffs for their
help and support during the work.

I must also not forget to thank my family and friends for

their constant support during the work.
 Abstract
Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of
chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm
or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the
environment. There are many substances in the air which may impair
the health of plants and animals (including humans), or reduce visibility.
Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Different
groups of individuals are affected by air pollution in different ways.

The extent to which an individual is harmed by air pollution usually

depends on the total exposure to the damaging chemicals, i.e., the
duration of exposure and the concentration of the chemicals must be
taken into account. Black carbon pollution is the release of tiny
particles into the air from burning fuel for energy. Air pollution caused
by such particulates has been a major problem since the beginning of
the industrial revolution and the development of the internal
combustion engine.

In the matter of four days a combination of dense fog and sooty black
coal smoke came over the London area . The fog was so dense residents
of London could not see in front of them. Cities around the world with
high exposure to air pollutants has the possibility of children living
within them to develop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory
infections as well as a low initial birth rate. Acid rain is rain or any
other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic. It has harmful
effects on the environment and on structures. Acid rain is mostly
caused by emissions due to human activity of sulfur and nitrogen
compounds which react in the atmosphere to produce acids. Global
warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the
Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-twentieth century,
and its projected continuation. The greenhouse effect is the process
in which the emission of infrared radiation by the atmosphere warms a
planet's surface. An Act to provide for the prevention, control and
abatement of air pollution, whereas decisions were taken at the United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in
June, 1972.
 Index
Acknowledgement

Abstract

1) Pollution
a. Major Forms Of Polluted Areas
2) Air Pollution
a. History
b. Pollutants
c. Sources
d. Emission Factors
e. Effects Of Air Pollution
i. Black Carbon Pollution
ii. The Great Smog Of 1952
iii. Acid Rain
1. Definition
2. History
3. Chemical Processes
iv. Global Warming
1. Causes
2. Greenhouse Gases In The Atmosphere
 v. Solar Variation
vi. Temperature Changes
vii. Attributed And Expected Effects
viii. Adaptation And Mitigation
ix. Greenhouse Effect
1. Greenhouse Gases
2. Real Greenhouses
f. Reduction Efforts
i. Control Devices
ii. Smog in Cairo
iii. Kyoto Protocol
1. Objectives
2. Status of Agreement
3. Increase in greenhouse gas emission since
1990,

iv. Positive Suggestions To Reduce Air Pollution

3) The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

a. Case Study

Conclusion

Materials and Mehods

Future Prospects
References

Pollution

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment, of whatever

predetermined or agreed upon proportions or frame of reference; these
contaminants cause instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the physical
systems or living organisms therein. Pollution can take the form of chemical
substances, or energy, such as noise, heat, or light energy Pollutants, the elements
of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when
naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural
levels Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution

Sometimes the term pollution is extended to include any substance when it occurs
at such unnaturally high concentration within a system that it endangers the
stability of that system For example, water is innocuous and essential for life, and
yet at very high concentration, it could be considered a pollutant: if a person were
to drink an excessive quantity of water, the physical system could be so
overburdened that breakdown and even death could result Another example is the
potential of excessive noise to induce imbalance in a person's mental state,
resulting in malfunction and psychosis; this has been used as a weapon in warfare

Major forms of pollution and major polluted areas

The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular pollutants
relevant to each of them:

 Air pollution, the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere
Common air pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and
motor vehicles Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides
and hydrocarbons react to sunlight.
  Water pollution, by the release of waste products and contaminants into
surface runoff into river drainage systems, leaching into groundwater, liquid
spills, wastewater discharges, eutrophication and littering.
 Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or
underground leakage Among the most significant soil contaminants are
hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated
hydrocarbons .
 Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic
physics, such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research,
manufacture and deployment (See alpha emitters and actinides in the
environment) .
 Noise pollution, which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial
noise as well as high-intensity sonar.
 Light pollution, includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical
interference.
 Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines,
motorway billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage
of trash or municipal solid waste.
 Thermal pollution is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by
human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant .

The Blacksmith Institute issues annually a list of the world's worst polluted places
In the 2007 issues the ten top nominees are located in Azerbaijan, China, India,
Peru, Russia, Ukraine and Zambia.
AIR POLLUTION
Air is the ocean we breathe Air supplies us with oxygen which is essential for our
bodies to live Air is 999% nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor and inert gases Human
activities can release substances into the air, some of which can cause problems
for humans, plants, and animals

There are several main types of pollution and well-known

effects of pollution which are commonly discussed These include
smog, acid rain, the greenhouse effect, and "holes" in the ozone
layer Each of these problems has serious implications for our
health and well-being as well as for the whole environment

One type of air pollution is the release of particles into the air from burning fuel
for energy Diesel smoke is a good example of this particulate matter The particles
are very small pieces of matter measuring about 25 microns or about 0001 inches
This type of pollution is sometimes referred to as "black carbon" pollution The
exhaust from burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries is a major source
of pollution in the air Some authorities believe that even the burning of wood and
charcoal in fireplaces and barbeques can release significant quantities of soot into
the air

Another type of pollution is the release of noxious gases, such as sulfur dioxide,
carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and chemical vapors These can take part in
further chemical reactions once they are in the atmosphere, forming smog and acid
rain

Pollution also needs to be considered inside our homes, offices, and schools Some
of these pollutants can be created by indoor activities such as smoking and cooking
In the United States, we spend about 80-90% of our time inside buildings, and so
our exposure to harmful indoor pollutants can be serious It is therefore important
to consider both indoor and outdoor air pollution

Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals,

particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to
humans or other living organisms, or damages the environment. Air pollution causes
deaths and respiratory disease.Air pollution is often identified with major
stationary sources, but the greatest source of emissions is mobile sources, mainly
automobiles Gases such as carbon dioxide, which contribute to global warming, have
recently gained recognition as pollutants by climate scientists, while they also
recognize that carbon dioxide is essential for plant life through photosynthesis

The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to

support life on planet Earth Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has
long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's
ecosystems.

History

Humans, probably, first experienced harm from air pollution when they built fires
in poorly ventilated caves Since then we have gone on to pollute more of the
earth's surface Until recently, environmental pollution problems have been local
and minor because of the Earth's own ability to absorb and purify minor quantities
of pollutants .The industrialization of society, the introduction of motorized
vehicles, and the explosion of the population, are factors contributing toward the
growing air pollution problem. At this time it is urgent that we find methods to
clean up the air.

The primary air pollutants found in most urban areas are carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter (both solid and liquid)
These pollutants are dispersed throughout the world's atmosphere in
concentrations high enough to gradually cause serious health problems Serious
health problems can occur quickly when air pollutants are concentrated, such as
when massive injections of sulfur dioxide and suspended particulate matter are
emitted by a large volcanic eruption.
Pollutants

Before flue gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant
in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide

There are many substances in the air which may impair the health of plants and
animals (including humans), or reduce visibility These arise both from natural
processes and human activity Substances not naturally found in the air or at
greater concentrations or in different locations from usual are referred to as
pollutants

Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary Primary pollutants are

substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption,
the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released
from factories

Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly Rather, they form in the air when
primary pollutants react or interact An important example of a secondary pollutant
is ground level ozone - one of the many secondary pollutants that make up
photochemical smog

For each city, the exact causes of pollution may be different Depending on the
geographical location, temperature, wind and weather factors, pollution is
dispersed differently However, sometimes this does not happen and the pollution
can build up to dangerous levels A temperature inversion occurs when air close to
the earth is cooler than the air above it Under these conditions the pollution
cannot rise and be dispersed Cities surrounded by mountains also experience
trapping of pollution Inversion can happen in any season Winter inversions are likely
to cause particulate and carbon monoxide pollution Summer inversions are more
likely to create smog Note that some pollutants may be both primary and
secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary
pollutants

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

Sulfur oxides (SOx) especially sulfur dioxide is emitted from burning of coal
and oil
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high
temperature combustion Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume
downwind of cities

Carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas

It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood
Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide

Carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion

Volatile organic compounds (VOC), such as hydrocarbon fuel vapors and

solvents

Particulate matter (PM), measured as smoke and dust PM10 is the fraction of
suspended particles 10 micrometers in diameter and smaller that will enter the
nasal cavity PM25 has a maximum particle size of 25 µm and will enter the bronchus
and lungs

Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), harmful to the ozone layer emitted from

products currently banned from use

Ammonia (NH3) emitted from agricultural processes

 Odors, such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes

Radioactive pollutants produced by nuclear explosions and war explosives,

and natural processes such as radon

Secondary pollutants include:

Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in

photochemical smog, such as nitrogen dioxide
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs

Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) similarly formed from NOx and VOCs

Minor air pollutants include:

A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants Some of these are

regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework
Directive
A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate
matter

Sources

Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas

Using a controlled burn on a field in South Georgia in preparation for spring
planting

Puxi area of Shanghai at sunset The sun has not actually dropped below the horizon
yet, rather it has reached the smog line

Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which
are responsible for the releasing of pollutants in the atmosphere These sources
can be classified into two major categories which are:

Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds

of fuel

"Stationary Sources" as smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing

facilities, municipal waste incinerators
"Mobile Sources" as motor vehicles, aircraft etc

Marine vessels, such as container ships or cruise ships, and related port air
pollution
 Burning wood, fireplaces, stoves, furnaces and incinerators

Oil refining, and industrial activity in general

Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry

management, (see Dust Bowl)

Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents

Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane

Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry.

Natural sources

Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no
vegetation
Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle

Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust

Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires

Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates

Emission factors

Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that attempt to relate the
quantity of a pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with
the release of that pollutant These factors are usually expressed as the weight of
pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity
emitting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per mega gram of coal
burned) Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of air
pollution In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of
acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-term
averages

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of

air pollutant emission factors for a multitude of industrial sources [5] The United
Kingdom, Australia, Canada and other countries have published similar compilations,
as has the European Environment Agency

Many people spend large portion of time indoors - as much as 80-90% of their lives
We work, study, eat, drink and sleep in enclosed environments where air circulation
may be restricted For these reasons, some experts feel that more people suffer
from the effects of indoor air pollution than outdoor pollution

There are many sources of indoor air pollution Tobacco smoke, cooking and
heating appliances, and vapors from building materials, paints, furniture,
etc cause pollution inside buildings Radon is a natural radioactive gas
released from the earth, and it can be found concentrated in basements in
some parts of the United States Additional information about the radon
problem is available from the USGS and the Minnesota Radon Project

Pollution exposure at home and work is often greater than outdoors The California
Air Resources Board estimates that indoor air pollutant levels are 25-62% greater
than outside levels and can pose serious health problems

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Indoor air quality (IAQ)

Main article: Indoor air quality

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend
the majority of their time Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth
in certain locations and trapped inside houses Building materials including carpeting
and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas Paint and solvents give off volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be
inhaled Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners,
incense, and other scented items Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can
add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out Indoor
pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays
indoors without proper ventilation

Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and
chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning
can result even from poorly adjusted pilot lights Traps are built into all domestic
plumbing to keep sewer gas, hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors Clothing emits
tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning

Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of
asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially
very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory
medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term,
heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures
Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk
regarding several different types of lung cancer As clear explanations are not
always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish
between several forms of relevant diseases According to the World Health
Organization (WHO), these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and
mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is
almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos)

Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne
particulates Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and
decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes
and micrometer-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in
walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate
Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can
produce pollen, dust, and mold Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these
airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature

Health effects

The World Health Organization states that 24 million people die each year from
causes directly attributable to air pollution; with 15 million of these deaths
attributable to indoor air pollution. Different groups of individuals are affected by
air pollution in different ways. Some individuals are much more sensitive to
pollutants than are others Young children and elderly people often suffer more
from the effects of air pollution People with health problems such as asthma,
heart and lung disease may also suffer more when the air is polluted The extent to
which an individual is harmed by air pollution usually depends on the total exposure
to the damaging chemicals, i.e., the duration of exposure and the concentration of
the chemicals must be taken into account

Examples of short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose and throat,
and upper respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia Other symptoms
can include headaches, nausea, and allergic reactions Short-term air pollution can
aggravate the medical conditions of individuals with asthma and emphysema In the
great "Smog Disaster" in London in 1952, four thousand people died in a few days
due to the high concentrations of pollution

Long-term health effects can include chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer,
heart disease, and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys Continual
exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of growing children and may aggravate
or complicate medical conditions in the elderly It is estimated that half a million
people die prematurely every year in the United States as a result of smoking
cigarettes

Research into the health effects of air pollution is ongoing Medical conditions
arising from air pollution can be very expensive Healthcare costs, lost productivity
in the workplace, and human welfare impacts cost billions of dollars each year
Additional information on the health effects of air pollution is available from the
Natural Resources Defense Council A short article on the health effects of ozone
(a major component of smog) is available from the BAAQMD

A study by the University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between

pneumonia related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles.Worldwide more
deaths per year are linked to air pollution than to automobile accidents.Published in
2005 suggests that 310,000 Europeans die from air pollution annually.Direct causes
of air pollution related deaths include aggravated asthma, bronchitis, emphysema,
lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies.The US EPA estimates that a
proposed set of changes in diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000
fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000 fewer emergency
room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital
admissions each year in the United States.

The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster.
Leaked industrial vapors from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union
Carbide, Inc, USA, killed more than 2,000 people outright and injured anywhere
from 150,000 to 600,000 others, some 6,000 of whom would later die from their
injuries.The United Kingdom suffered its worst air pollution event when the
December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London In six days more than 4,000
died, and 8,000 more died within the following months.An accidental leak of
anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in 1979
near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of hundreds of civilian
deaths.The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the United States of
America occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people
died and over 7,000 were injured.

The health effects caused by air pollutants may range from subtle biochemical and
physiological changes to difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation
of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions These effects can result in
increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital
admissions and death The human health effects of poor air quality are far
reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the
cardiovascular system Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of
pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health
status and genet

Black Carbon Pollution

Black carbon pollution is the release of tiny particles into the air from burning fuel
for energy. Air pollution caused by such particulates has been a major problem
since the beginning of the industrial revolution and the development of the internal
combustion engine. Scientific publications dealing with the analysis of soot and
smoke date back as early as 1896 Mankind has become so dependent on the burning
of fossil fuels (petroleum products, coal, and natural gas) that the sum total of all
combustion-related emissions now constitutes a serious and widespread problem,
not only to human health, but also to the entire global environment .

Additional resources dealing with the problems associated with particulate

pollution are available from Burning Issues (This group has additional information
at a second site)

In recent years, there has been great concern about black carbon pollution of the
air in parts of Eastern Europe Education is one important step toward correcting
the problem

The Great Smog of 1952

In the matter of four days a combination of dense fog and sooty black coal smoke
came over the London area . The fog was so dense residents of London could not
see in front of them .The extreme reduction in visibility was accompanied by an
increase in criminal activity as well as transportation delays and a virtual shut down
of the city During the 4 day period of the fog 12,000 are believed to have been
killed.

Effects on children
Cities around the world with high exposure to air pollutants has the possibility of
children living within them to develop asthma, pneumonia and other lower
respiratory infections as well as a low initial birth rate. Protective measures to
ensure the youth’s health are being taken in countries such as New Delhi where
buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate the “pea-soup”
fog.Research by the World Health Organization shows there is the greatest
concentration of particulate matter particles in countries with low economic world
power and high poverty and population rates Examples of these countries include
Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia, and Indonesia The Clean Air Act was passed in 1970;
however in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were living in areas that did not
meet at least one of the “criteria pollutants” laid out in the 1997 National Ambient
Air Quality Standards .Those pollutants included: ozone, particulate matter, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead Because children are outdoors
more and have higher minute ventilation they are more susceptible to the dangers
of air pollution.

Acid rain

Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic. It has
harmful effects on the environment and on structures. Acid rain is mostly caused
by emissions due to human activity of sulfur and nitrogen compounds which react in
the atmosphere to produce acids. In recent years, many governments have
introduced laws to reduce these emissions.

Definition

The term "acid rain" is commonly used to mean the deposition of acidic components
in rain, snow, fog, dew, or dry particles The more accurate term is "acid
precipitation" Distilled water, which contains no carbon dioxide, has a neutral pH of
7 Liquids with a pH less than 7 are acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are
basic "Clean" or unpolluted rain is slightly acidic, its pH being about 56, because
carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak
acid[1]

H2O (l) + CO2 (g) → H2CO3 (aq)

Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations of hydronium
ions:

2H2O (l) + H2CO3 (aq) ⇌ CO32- (aq) + 2H3O+ (aq)

The extra acidity in rain comes from the reaction of primary air pollutants;
primarily sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, with water in the air to form strong
acids (like sulfuric and nitric acid) The main sources of these pollutants are
vehicles and industrial and power-generating plants.

History

Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides to
the atmosphere have increased. Acid rain was first found in Manchester, England
In 1852, Robert Angus Smith found the relationship between acid rain and
atmospheric pollution.Though acid rain was discovered in 1852, it wasn't until the
late 1960s that scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon
Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a "dead" lake Public
awareness of acid rain in the US increased in the 1990s after the New York Times
promulgated reports from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New
Hampshire of the myriad deleterious environmental effects demonstrated to
result from it.

Occasional pH readings of well below 24 (the acidity of vinegar) have been

reported in industrialized areas.Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in
China [5]
, Eastern Europe, Russia and areas down-wind from them These areas all
burn sulfur containing coal to generate heat and electricity The problem of acid
rain not only has increased with population and industrial growth, but has become
more widespread The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has
contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric
circulation Often deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of the
emissions, with mountainous regions tending to receive the most (simply because of
their higher rainfall) An example of this effect is the low pH of rain (compared to
the local emissions) which falls in Scandinavia.

Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification

The most important gas which leads to acidification is sulfur dioxide Emissions of
nitrogen oxides which are oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing importance
due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur containing compounds 70 Tg(S) per
year in the form of SO2 comes from fossil fuel combustion and industry, 28 Tg(S)
from wildfires and 7-8 Tg(S) per year from volcanoes.

Natural Phenomena

The principal natural phenomena that contribute acid-producing gases to the

atmosphere are emissions from volcanoes and those from biological processes that
occur on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans The major biological source of
sulfur containing compounds is dimethyl sulfide

The effects of acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice thousands of years
old in remote parts of the globe

Human activity

The coal-fired Gavin power plant in Cheshire, Ohio

The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen compounds from human
sources, such as electricity generation, factories and motor vehicles Coal power
plants are one of the most polluting The gases can be carried hundreds of
kilometers in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited In
the past, factories had short funnels to let out smoke, but this caused many
problems; thus, factories now have longer smoke funnels However, this causes
pollutants to be carried farther, causing greater ecological damage

Chemical processes

Gas phase chemistry

In the gas phase sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with the hydroxyl radical
via an intermolecular reaction:

SO2 + OH· → HOSO2·

This is followed by:

HOSO2· + O2 → HO2· + SO3

In the presence of water sulfur trioxide (SO3) is converted rapidly to sulfuric

acid:

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (l)

Nitric acid is formed by the reaction of OH with Nitrogen dioxide:

NO2 + OH· → HNO3

Chemistry in cloud droplets

When clouds are present the loss rate of SO2 is faster than can be explained by
gas phase chemistry alone This is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets

Hydrolysis
Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon dioxide, hydrolyses in a
series of equilibrium reactions:

SO2 (g) + H2O ⇌ SO2·H2O

SO2·H2O ⇌ H++HSO3-
HSO3- ⇌ H++SO32-
Oxidation

There are a large number of aqueous reactions that oxidize sulfur from S (IV) to S
(VI), leading to the formation of sulfuric acid The most important oxidation
reactions are with ozone, hydrogen peroxide and oxygen (reactions with oxygen are
catalyzed by iron and manganese in the cloud droplets)

Global warming

This article is about the current period of increasing global temperature For
other periods of warming in Earth's history; see Palaeoclimatology and Geologic
temperature record

Global mean surface temperature anomaly relative to 1961–1990

Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect
to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980

Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the

Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-twentieth century, and its
projected continuation.
The average global air temperature near the Earth's surface increased 074 ±
018 °C (133 ± 032 °F) during the hundred years ending in 2005 [1] The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes "most of the
observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-twentieth
century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic (man-made)
greenhouse gas concentrations"[1] via an enhanced greenhouse effect Natural
phenomena such as solar variation combined with volcanoes probably had a small
warming effect from pre-industrial times to 1950 and a small cooling effect from
1950 onward

These basic conclusions have been endorsed by at least thirty scientific societies
and academies of science,[4] including all of the national academies of science of the
major industrialized countries[5][6][7] While individual scientists have voiced
disagreement with some findings of the IPCC, [8] the overwhelming majority of
scientists working on climate change agree with the IPCC's main conclusions

Climate model projections summarized by the IPCC indicate that average global
surface temperature will likely rise a further 11 to 64 °C (20 to 115 °F) during the
twenty-first century[1] This range of values results from the use of differing
scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions as well as models with differing
climate sensitivity Although most studies focus on the period up to 2100, warming
and sea level rise are expected to continue for more than a thousand years even if
greenhouse gas levels are stabilized The delay in reaching equilibrium is a result of
the large heat capacity of the oceans[1]

Increasing global temperature is expected to cause sea level to raise, an increase

in the intensity of extreme weather events, and significant changes to the amount
and pattern of precipitation Other expected effects of global warming include
changes in agricultural yields, modifications of trade routes, glacier retreat,
species extinctions and increases in the ranges of disease vectors

Remaining scientific uncertainties include the amount of warming expected in the

future, and how warming and related changes will vary from region to region around
the globe Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol
aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but there is ongoing political and
public debate worldwide regarding what, if any, action should be taken to reduce or
reverse future warming or to adapt to its expected consequences

Causes

Components of the current radioactive forcing as estimated by the IPCC Fourth

Assessment Report

Main articles: Attribution of recent climate change and Scientific opinion on

climate change

The Earth's climate changes in response to external forcing, including variations in

its orbit around the Sun (orbital forcing), changes in solar luminosity, volcanic
eruptions, and atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations The detailed causes of
the recent warming remain an active field of research, but the scientific
consensus[19][20] is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human
activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era
This attribution is clearest for the most recent 50 years, for which the most
detailed data are available Some other hypotheses departing from the consensus
view have been suggested to explain most of the temperature increase One such
hypothesis proposes that warming may be the result of variations in solar activity

None of the effects of forcing are instantaneous The thermal inertia of the
Earth's oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects mean that the Earth's
current climate is not in equilibrium with the forcing imposed Climate commitment
studies indicate that even if greenhouse gases were stabilized at 2000 levels, a
further warming of about 05 °C (09 °F) would still occur[24]

Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

Main articles: Greenhouse gas and Greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect was discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824 and was first
investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896 It is the process by which
absorption and emission of infrared radiation by atmospheric gases warm a planet's
lower atmosphere and surface

Recent increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2) The monthly CO2

measurements display small seasonal oscillations in an overall yearly uptrend; each
year's maximum is reached during the Northern Hemisphere's late spring, and
declines during the Northern Hemisphere growing season as plants remove some
CO2 from the atmosphere

Existence of the greenhouse effect as such is not disputed Naturally occurring

greenhouse gases have a mean warming effect of about 33 °C (59 °F), without
which Earth would be uninhabitable. On Earth, the major greenhouse gases are
water vapor, which causes about 36–70% of the greenhouse effect (not including
clouds); carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 9–26%; methane (CH4), which causes 4–
9%; and ozone, which causes 3–7%The issue is how the strength of the greenhouse
effect changes when human activity increases the atmospheric concentrations of
some greenhouse gases

Human activity since the industrial revolution has increased the concentration of
various greenhouse gases, leading to increased radioactive forcing from CO2,
methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide Molecule for molecule,
methane is a more effective greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but its
concentration is much smaller so that its total radioactive forcing is only about a
fourth of that from carbon dioxide Some other naturally occurring gases
contribute small fractions of the greenhouse effect; one of these, nitrous oxide
(N2O), is increasing in concentration owing to human activity such as agriculture
The atmospheric concentrations of CO2 and CH4 have increased by 31% and 149%
respectively since the beginning of the industrial revolution in the mid-1700s
These levels are considerably higher than at any time during the last 650,000
years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores[29]
From less direct geological evidence it is believed that CO 2 values this high were
last attained 20 million years ago[30] Fossil fuel burning has produced approximately
three-quarters of the increase in CO2 from human activity over the past 20 years
Most of the rest is due to land-use change, in particular deforestation[31]

Yearly increase of atmospheric CO2: In the 1960s, the average annual increase
was 37% of what it was in 2000 through 2007 [32]

The present atmospheric concentration of CO2 is about 385 parts per million (ppm)
by volume[33] Future CO2 levels are expected to rise due to ongoing burning of fossil
fuels and land-use change The rate of rise will depend on uncertain economic,
sociological, technological, and natural developments, but may be ultimately limited
by the availability of fossil fuels The IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios
gives a wide range of future CO2 scenarios, ranging from 541 to 970 ppm by the
year 2100[34] Fossil fuel reserves are sufficient to reach this level and continue
emissions past 2100, if coal, tar sands or methane clathrates are extensively
used[35]

Solar variation
Solar variation over the last thirty years

Main article: Solar variation

A few papers suggest that the Sun's contribution may have been underestimated
Two researchers at Duke University, Bruce West and Nicola Scafetta, have
estimated that the Sun may have contributed about 45–50% of the increase in the
average global surface temperature over the period 1900–2000, and about 25–35%
between 1980 and 2000[41] A paper by Peter Stott and other researchers suggests
that climate models overestimate the relative effect of greenhouse gases
compared to solar forcing; they also suggest that the cooling effects of volcanic
dust and sulfate aerosols have been underestimated They nevertheless conclude
that even with enhanced climate sensitivity to solar forcing, most of the warming
since the mid-20th century is likely attributable to the increases in greenhouse
gases

A different hypothesis is that variations in solar output, possibly amplified by

cloud seeding via galactic cosmic rays, may have contributed to recent warming[43]
It suggests magnetic activity of the sun is a crucial factor which deflects cosmic
rays that may influence the generation of cloud condensation nuclei and thereby
affect the climate[44]

One predicted effect of an increase in solar activity would be a warming of most of

the stratosphere, whereas greenhouse gas theory predicts cooling there [45] The
observed trend since at least 1960 has been a cooling of the lower stratosphere [46]
Reduction of stratospheric ozone also has a cooling influence, but substantial ozone
depletion did not occur until the late 1970s [47] Solar variation combined with
changes in volcanic activity probably did have a warming effect from pre-industrial
times to 1950, but a cooling effect since[1] In 2006, Peter Foukal and other
researchers from the United States, Germany, and Switzerland found no net
increase of solar brightness over the last thousand years Solar cycles led to a
small increase of 007% in brightness over the last thirty years This effect is too
small to contribute significantly to global warming One paper by Mike Lockwood and
Claus Fröhlich found no relation between global warming and solar radiation since
1985, whether through variations in solar output or variations in cosmic rays [50]
Henrik Svensmark and Eigil Friis-Christensen, the main proponents of cloud seeding
by galactic cosmic rays, disputed this criticism of their hypothesis [51] A 2007 paper
found that in the last 20 years there has been no significant link between changes
in cosmic rays coming to Earth and cloudiness and temperature

Temperature changes

Two millennia of mean surface temperatures according to different

reconstructions, each smoothed on a decadal scale The unsmoothed, annual value
for 2004 is also plotted for reference
Main article: Temperature record
Recent

Global temperatures on both land and sea have increased by 075 °C (135 °F)
relative to the period 1860–1900, according to the instrumental temperature
record This measured temperature increase is not significantly affected by the
urban heat island effect[55] Since 1979, land temperatures have increased about
twice as fast as ocean temperatures (025 °C per decade against 013 °C per decade)
[56]
Temperatures in the lower troposphere have increased between 012 and 022 °C
(022 and 04 °F) per decade since 1979, according to satellite temperature
measurements Temperature is believed to have been relatively stable over the one
or two thousand years before 1850, with possibly regional fluctuations such as the
Medieval Warm Period or the Little Ice Age[citation needed]

Sea temperatures increase more slowly than those on land both because of the
larger effective heat capacity of the oceans and because the ocean can lose heat
by evaporation more readily than the land[57] The Northern Hemisphere has more
land than the Southern Hemisphere, so it warms faster The Northern Hemisphere
also has extensive areas of seasonal snow and sea-ice cover subject to the ice-
albedo feedback More greenhouse gases are emitted in the Northern than
Southern Hemisphere, but this does not contribute to the difference in warming
because the major greenhouse gases persist long enough to mix between
hemispheres

Based on estimates by NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 2005 was
the warmest year since reliable, widespread instrumental measurements became
available in the late 1800s, exceeding the previous record set in 1998 by a few
hundredths of a degree[58] Estimates prepared by the World Meteorological
Organization and the Climatic Research Unit concluded that 2005 was the second
warmest year, behind 1998Temperatures in 1998 were unusually warm because the
strongest El Niño-Southern Oscillation in the past century occurred during that
year
Anthropogenic emissions of other pollutants—notably sulfate aerosols—can exert a
cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight This partially
accounts for the cooling seen in the temperature record in the middle of the
twentieth century,[62] though the cooling may also be due in part to natural
variability James Hansen and colleagues have proposed that the effects of the
products of fossil fuel combustion—CO2 and aerosols—have largely offset one
another, so that warming in recent decades has been driven mainly by non-CO 2
greenhouse gases[63]

Paleoclimatologist William Ruddiman has argued that human influence on the global
climate began around 8,000 years ago with the start of forest clearing to provide
land for agriculture and 5,000 years ago with the start of Asian rice irrigation [64]
Ruddiman's interpretation of the historical record, with respect to the methane
data, has been disputed[65]

Attributed and expected effects

Sparse records indicate that glaciers have been retreating since the early 1800s
In the 1950s measurements began that allow the monitoring of glacial mass
balance, reported to the WGMS and the NSIDC

Main article: Effects of global warming

Although it is difficult to connect specific weather events to global warming, an

increase in global temperatures may in turn cause broader changes, including glacial
retreat, Arctic shrinkage, and worldwide sea level rise Changes in the amount and
pattern of precipitation may result in flooding and drought There may also be
changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events Other effects
may include changes in agricultural yields, addition of new trade routes, [78] reduced
summer streamflows, species extinctions, and increases in the range of disease
vectors

Some effects on both the natural environment and human life are, at least in part,
already being attributed to global warming A 2001 report by the IPCC suggests
that glacier retreat, ice shelf disruption such as that of the Larsen Ice Shelf, sea
level rise, changes in rainfall patterns, and increased intensity and frequency of
extreme weather events, are being attributed in part to global warming [79] While
changes are expected for overall patterns, intensity, and frequencies, it is
difficult to attribute specific events to global warming Other expected effects
include water scarcity in some regions and increased precipitation in others,
changes in mountain snowpack, and adverse health effects from warmer
temperatures[80]

Increasing deaths, displacements, and economic losses projected due to extreme

weather attributed to global warming may be exacerbated by growing population
densities in affected areas, although temperate regions are projected to
experience some benefits, such as fewer deaths due to cold exposure [81] A summary
of probable effects and recent understanding can be found in the report made for
the IPCC Third Assessment Report by Working Group II[79] The newer IPCC Fourth
Assessment Report summary reports that there is observational evidence for an
increase in intense tropical cyclone activity in the North Atlantic Ocean since
about 1970, in correlation with the increase in sea surface temperature (see
Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation), but that the detection of long-term trends is
complicated by the quality of records prior to routine satellite observations The
summary also states that there is no clear trend in the annual worldwide number of
tropical cyclones[1]

Additional anticipated effects include sea level rise of 110 to 770 millimeters (036
to 25 ft) between 1990 and 2100,[82] repercussions to agriculture, possible slowing
of the thermohaline circulation, reductions in the ozone layer, increased intensity
(but less frequent)[83] of hurricanes and extreme weather events, lowering of ocean
pH, and the spread of diseases such as malaria and dengue fever One study
predicts 18% to 35% of a sample of 1,103 animal and plant species would be extinct
by 2050, based on future climate projections[84] However, few mechanistic studies
have documented extinctions due to recent climate change [85]
and one study
suggests that projected rates of extinction are uncertain [86]
Global warming is expected to increase the potential geographic range and
virulence of tropical diseases[87] Climate change could cause a major increase in
insect-borne diseases such as malaria throughout Europe, North America and
North Asia[88]

Adaptation and mitigation

Main articles: Adaptation to global warming, Mitigation of global warming, and

Kyoto Protocol

The broad agreement among climate scientists that global temperatures will
continue to increase has led some nations, states, corporations and individuals to
implement actions to try to curtail global warming or adjust to it Many
environmental groups encourage individual action against global warming, often by
the consumer, but also by community and regional organizations Others have
suggested a quota on worldwide fossil fuel production, citing a direct link between
fossil fuel production and CO2 emissions

There has also been business action on climate change, including efforts at
increased energy efficiency and limited moves towards use of alternative fuels One
recently developed concept is that of greenhouse gas emissions trading through
which companies, in conjunction with government, agree to cap their emissions or to
purchase credits from those below their allowances

The world's primary international agreement on combating global warming is the

Kyoto Protocol, an amendment to the UNFCCC negotiated in 1997 The Protocol now
covers more than 160 countries globally and over 55% of global greenhouse gas
emissions. Only the United States and Kazakhstan have not ratified the treaty,
with the United States historically being the world's largest emitter of
greenhouse gas This treaty expires in 2012, and international talks began in May
2007 on a future treaty to succeed the current one .

Claiming "serious harm" to the United States economy and the exemption of "80
percent of the world, including major population centers" like China and India from
the treaty, George W Bush contends that the Kyoto Protocol is an unfair and
ineffective means of addressing global climate change concerns [100] Bush has
promoted improved energy technology as a means to combat climate change, [101] and
various state and city governments within the United States have begun their own
initiatives to indicate support and compliance with the Kyoto Protocol on a local
basis; an example of this being the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative [102] The US
Climate Change Science Program is a joint program of over twenty US federal
agencies, working together to investigate climate changes

China and India, though exempt from its provisions as developing countries, have
ratified the Kyoto Protocol China may have passed the US in total annual
greenhouse gas emissions according to some recent studies [103]
Chinese Premier
Wen Jiabao has called on the nation to redouble its efforts to tackle pollution and
global warming[104]

The IPCC's Working Group III is responsible for crafting reports that deal with
the mitigation of global warming and analyzing the costs and benefits of different
approaches In the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, they conclude that no
one technology or sector can be completely responsible for mitigating future
warming They find there are key practices and technologies in various sectors,
such as energy supply, transportation, industry, and agriculture that should be
implemented to reduced global emissions They estimate that stabilization of
carbon dioxide equivalent between 445 and 710 ppm by 2030 will result in between
a 06% increase and 3% decrease in global gross domestic product[105] According to
Working Group III, to limit temperature rise to 2 Degrees Centigrade, "developed
countries as a group would need to reduce their emissions to below 1990 levels in
2020 (on the order of –10% to 40% below 1990 levels for most of the considered
regimes) and to still lower levels by 2050 (40% (Sic 80% in Box 137, p776) to 95%
below 1990 levels), even if developing countries make substantial reductions" [106]

Greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is the process in which the emission of infrared radiation
by the atmosphere warms a planet's surface. The name comes from the incorrect
analogy with the warming of air inside a greenhouse compared to the air outside
the greenhouse (see "Real Greenhouses" below). The greenhouse effect was
discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824 and first investigated quantitatively by
Svante Arrhenius in 1896.

In the absence of the greenhouse effect, the Earth's average surface

temperature of 14 °C (57 °F) would be about -18 °C (–22 °F) [2]
Global warming, a
recent warming of the Earth's lower atmosphere, is believed to be the result of an
enhanced greenhouse effect due to increased concentrations of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere In addition to the Earth, Mars and Venus have greenhouse
effects
Greenhouse gases

Main article: Greenhouse gas

Quantum mechanics provides the basis for computing the interactions between
molecules and radiation Most of this interaction occurs when the frequency of the
radiation closely matches that of the spectral lines of the molecule, determined by
the quantization of the modes of vibration and rotation of the molecule (The
electronic excitations are generally not relevant for infrared radiation, as they
require energy larger than that in an infrared photon)

Major greenhouse gas trends

The width of a spectral line is an important element in understanding its

importance for the absorption of radiation In the Earth’s atmosphere these
spectral widths are primarily determined by “pressure broadening”, which is the
distortion of the spectrum due to the collision with another molecule Most of the
infrared absorption in the atmosphere can be thought of as occurring while two
molecules are colliding The absorption due to a photon interacting with a lone
molecule is relatively small This three-body aspect of the problem, one photon and
two molecules, makes direct quantum mechanical computation for molecules of
interest more challenging Careful laboratory spectroscopic measurements, rather
than ab initio quantum mechanical computations, provide the basis for most of the
radioactive transfer calculations used in studies of the atmosphere

Year-over-year increase of atmospheric CO2: In the 1960s, the average annual

increase was 37% of what it was in 2000 through 2007 [4]

The molecules/atoms that constitute the bulk of the atmosphere: oxygen (O2),
nitrogen (N2) and argon (Ar); do not interact with infrared radiation significantly
While the oxygen and nitrogen molecules can vibrate, because of their symmetry
these vibrations do not create any transient charge separation Without such a
transient dipole moment, they can neither absorb nor emit infrared radiation In
the Earth’s atmosphere, the dominant infrared absorbing gases are water vapor,
carbon dioxide, and ozone (O3) The same molecules are also the dominant infrared
emitting molecules CO2 and O3 have "floppy" vibration motions whose quantum
states can be excited by collisions at energies encountered in the atmosphere For
example, carbon dioxide is a linear molecule, but it has an important vibrational
mode in which the molecule bends with the carbon in the middle moving one way and
the oxygen molecules on the ends moving the other way, creating some charge
separation, a dipole moment, thus carbon dioxide molecules can absorb IR radiation
Collisions will immediately transfer this energy to heating the surrounding gas On
the other hand, other CO2 molecules will be vibrationally excited by collisions
Roughly 5% of CO2 molecules are vibrationally excited at room temperature and it
is this 5% that radiates A substantial part of the greenhouse effect due to carbon
dioxide exists because this vibration is easily excited by infrared radiation CO 2
has two other vibrational modes The symmetric stretch does not radiate, and the
asymmetric stretch is at too high a frequency to be effectively excited by
atmospheric temperature collisions, although it does contribute to absorption of IR
radiation The vibrational modes of water are at too high energies to effectively
radiate, but do absorb higher frequency IR radiation Water vapor has a bent shape
It has a permanent dipole moment (the O atom end is electron rich and the H
atoms electron poor) which means that IR radiation can be emitted and absorbed
during rotational transitions, and these transitions can also be produced by
collisional energy transfer Clouds are also very important infrared absorbers
Therefore, water has multiple effects on infrared radiation, through its vapor
phase and through its condensed phases Other absorbers of significance include
methane, nitrous oxide and the chlorofluorocarbons

Discussion of the relative importance of different infrared absorbers is confused by the overlap between
the spectral lines due to different gases, widened by pressure broadening As a result, the absorption due
to one gas cannot be thought of as independent of the presence of other gases One convenient
approach is to remove the chosen constituent, leaving all other absorbers, and the temperatures,
untouched, and monitoring the infrared radiation escaping to space The reduction in infrared absorption
is then a measure of the importance of that constituent More precisely, define the greenhouse effect
(GE) to be the difference between the infrared radiation that the surface would radiate to space if there
were no atmosphere and the actual infrared radiation escaping to space Then compute the percentage
reduction in GE when a constituent is removed The table below is computed by this method, using a
particular 1-dimensional model of the atmosphere More recent 3D computations lead to similar results

Gas removed percent reduction in GE

H2O 36%

CO2 9%

O3 3%

(Source: GISS-GCM Model E simulation) [5]

By this particular measure, water vapor can be thought of as providing 36% of the
greenhouse effect, and carbon dioxide 9%, but the effect of removal of both of
these constituents will be greater than the total that each reduces the effect, in
this case more than 45% An additional proviso is that these numbers are computed
holding the cloud distribution fixed But removing water vapor from the atmosphere
while holding clouds fixed is not likely to be physically relevant In addition, the
effects of a given gas are typically nonlinear in the amount of that gas, since the
absorption by the gas at one level in the atmosphere can remove photons that
would otherwise interact with the gas at another altitude The kinds of estimates
presented in the table, while often encountered in the controversies surrounding
global warming, must be treated with caution Different estimates found in
different sources typically result from different definitions and do not reflect
uncertainties in the underlying radioactive transfer.

Real greenhouses
A modern Greenhouse in RHS Wisley

The term 'greenhouse effect' originally came from the greenhouses used for
gardening, but it is a misnomer because greenhouses operate differently A
greenhouse is built of glass It heats up mainly because the sun warms the ground
inside it and this warms the air in the greenhouse The air continues to heat
because it is confined within the greenhouse, unlike the environment outside the
greenhouse where warm air near the surface rises and mixes with cooler air aloft
This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the roof of a greenhouse:
the temperature will drop considerably It has also been demonstrated
experimentally (Wood, 1909): a "greenhouse" built of rock salt (which is
transparent to infrared radiation) heats up just as one built of glass does
Greenhouses thus work primarily by preventing convection; the atmospheric
greenhouse effect however reduces radiation loss, not convection. It is quite
common, however, to find sources that make the erroneous "greenhouse" analogy
Although the primary mechanism for warming greenhouses is the prevention of
mixing with the free atmosphere, the radioactive properties of the glazing can still
be important to commercial growers With the modern development of new plastic
surfaces and glazings for greenhouses, this has permitted construction of
greenhouses which selectively control radiation transmittance in order to better
control the growing environment.

Reduction efforts
There are various air pollution control technologies and urban planning strategies
available to reduce air pollution

Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many
developing countries have permissive regulations) [citation needed], expanding regulation
to new sources (such as cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-
powered equipment such as lawn trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased
fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner
fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion to electric vehicles)

Control devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or
transportation devices They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from
an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere

Particulate control
Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)

Electrostatic precipitators

Baghouses

Particulate scrubbers

Scrubbers

Baffle spray scrubber

Cyclonic spray scrubber

Ejector venturi scrubber

Mechanically aided scrubber

Spray tower

Wet scrubber
NOx control

Low NOx burners

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)

NOx scrubbers

Exhaust gas recirculation

Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)

VOC abatement

Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon

Flares

Thermal oxidizers

Catalytic oxidizers

Biofilters

Absorption (scrubbing)

Cryogenic condensers

Vapor recovery systems

Acid Gas/SO2 control

Wet scrubbers

Dry scrubbers

Flue gas desulfurization

Mercury control
 Sorbent Injection Technology

Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)

K-Fuel

Dioxin and furan control

Miscellaneous associated equipment

Source capturing systems

Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

Legal regulations

The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a
worldwide view of the subject
Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page

Smog in Cairo
In general, there are two types of air quality standards The first class of
standards (such as the US National Ambient Air Quality Standards) set maximum
atmospheric concentrations for specific pollutants Environmental agencies enact
regulations which are intended to result in attainment of these target levels The
second class (such as the North American Air Quality Index) takes the form of a
scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the
relative risk of outdoor activity The scale may or may not distinguish between
different pollutants

Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on
Climate Change with the objective of reducing greenhouse gases in an effort to
prevent anthropogenic climate change

It was adopted on 11 December 1997 by the 3rd Conference of the Parties, which
was meeting in Kyoto, and it entered into force on 16 February 2005 As of May
2008, 182 parties have ratified the protocol[1] Of these, 36 developed cg countries
(plus the EU as a party in its own right) are required to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions to the levels specified for each of them in the treaty (representing over
616% of emissions from Annex I countries), [1][2] with three more countries
intending to participate[3] One hundred thirty-seven (137) developing countries
have ratified the protocol, including Brazil, China and India, but have no obligation
beyond monitoring and reporting emissions The United States has not ratified the
treaty Among various experts, scientists, and critics, there is debate about the
usefulness of the protocol, and there have been cost-benefit studies performed on
its usefulness

Objectives
Kyoto is intended to cut global emissions of greenhouse gases

The objective is to achieve "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the

atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference
with the climate system"[6]

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted an average

global rise in temperature of 14°C (25°F) to 58°C (104°F) between 1990 and 2100
Proponents also note that Kyoto is a first step as requirements to meet the
UNFCCC will be modified until the objective is met, as required by UNFCCC Article
42(d)

Status of the agreement

Participation in the Kyoto Protocol: green indicates states parties, yellow indicates
states with ratification pending, and red indicates those that signed but declined
ratification of the treaty

The treaty was negotiated in Kyoto, Japan in December 1997, opened for signature
on March 16, 1998, and closed on March 15, 1999 The agreement came into force
on February 16, 2005 following ratification by Russia on November 18, 2004 As of
May 2008, a total of 181 countries and 1 regional economic integration organization
(the EEC) have ratified the agreement (representing over 616% of emissions from
Annex I countries)

According to article 25 of the protocol, it enters into force "on the ninetieth day
after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating
Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55% of the total
carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Parties included in Annex I, have
deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession" Of
the two conditions, the "55 parties" clause was reached on May 23, 2002 when
Iceland ratified The ratification by Russia on 18 November 2004 satisfied the
"55%" clause and brought the treaty into force, effective February 16, 2005
Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd ratified the Kyoto protocol on December 3,
2007 This came into effect after 90 days (the end of March 2008), as is stated in
the guidelines set by the United Nations

Increase in greenhouse gas emission since 1990

Below is a list of the change in greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 to 2004 for
some countries that are part of the Climate Change Convention as reported by the
United Nations?[91]

Change in Change in
greenhouse gas greenhouse gas EU Assigned
Treaty Obligation
Country Emissions (1990- Emissions (1990- Objective
2008-2012
2004) 2004) for 2012
excluding LULUCF including LULUCF

Germany -17% -182% -21% -8%

Canada +27% +266% N/A -6%

Australia +25% +52% N/A +8%

Spain +49% +504% +15% -8%

Norway +10% -187% N/A +1%

New Zealand +21% +179% N/A 0%

France -08% -61% 0% -8%

Greece +27% +253% +25% -8%

Ireland +23% +227% +13% -8%

Japan +65% +52% N/A -6%

United
-14% -588% -125% -8%
Kingdom

Portugal +41% +289% +27% -8%

EU-15 -08% -26% N/A -8%

Below is a table of the changes in CO2 emission of some other countries which are
large contributors, but are not required to meet numerical limitations [92]

Change in greenhouse gas

Country
Emissions (1990-2004)

US +158%

Russian Federation -32%

China +47%

India +55%

TABLE 

POSITIVE SUGGESTIONS TO REDUCE AIR POLLUTION,

 TO REPAIR THE HOLE IN THE OZONE LAYER

& TO LOWER THE RISK OF SKIN CANCER

CAUSE SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS
o Planes (private & commercial)

should either be taxed per

More damage is done by planes, than
by cars in creating the greenhouse
effect, because they actually expel
copious exhaust fumes close to the
ozone layer I cannot be the only one
to realize this Have these facts been
kept under wraps for commercial
reasons? Globalization
commercialism have a lot to answer
for The policy to build additional
length of plane journey, or per
day (A special air-pollution
charge might already be the
case; if so, it should be
increased, and so cheap air-
travel is a thing of the past)
o Additional runways & airports
should NOT be built
o Airlines should be encouraged
to restrict weekly usage to 1-2
& days less than usual
o The ideal solution would be for

runways and increase air-traffic all air-travel (including military

pollution, whilst reducing road traffic use, but excluding rescue

pollution is difficult to comprehend helicopters in real

o        The worst damage to the
ozone layer is done by space-
emergencies) to be stopped
for a year After 9/11, air
travel was stopped in the US &
people, who reside near
airports, commented on the
lack of noise & air pollution
o All space travel should be
halted until the ozone layer
 craft & rockets delivering has repaired itself
satellites, which actually force
o TV & spy satellites abound
their way through the ozone
already, many of which are
layer
under-used These should be
o        Damage to the atmosphere utilized more efficiently No
& stratosphere in the past has more should be launched until
also been due to nuclear the ozone layer has improved
testing, which has left
increased concentration of
beryllium7
Developing countries are allowed to o No country should be allowed
create industrial pollution, despite to create industrial pollution
the damage it is doing, so they can
o Westerners must be made
produce ridiculously-cheap goods for
aware of the real cost of
western nations The underlying
cheap goods from developing
culprit is commercialism and
countries (in human terms &
globalization
the levels of pollution, etc) &
the West must be made to
care

o Developing countries should be

encouraged to use their
traditional methods to produce
goods Any developing
country, which does so, should
become a World Heritage site,
helped by wealthier countries
in a positive way  Developing
countries should have modern
cities if they wish, but the
 countryside, the wildlife, the
culture and the diversity must
be treasured and maintained

o Fair trade prices should be

paid to them & the western
world should stop taking
advantage of their poverty,
but should treasure their
cultural heritage
The racing of cars, motorbikes, mini- o An air pollution tax should be
bikes, all-terrain vehicles, etc also introduced for such vehicles
adds to air pollution during practice runs & races
o Bonfires should be discouraged

Bonfires & firework displays cause o Firework displays should be

huge smoke clouds and the following licensed for safety & to
day are usually overcast and drab as control numbers of fireworks
a result
o Sales to individuals should be
banned
 THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981
No 14 of 1981

[29th March, 1981]

An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, for
the establishment, with a view to carrying out the a foresaid purposes, of Boards,
for conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating
thereto and for matters connected therewith.

WHEREAS decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment held in Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to take
appropriate steps for the preservation of the natural resources of the earth
which, among other things, include the preservation of the quality of air and
control of air pollution;

AND WHEREAS it is considered necessary to implement the decisions aforesaid in

so far as they relate to the preservation of the quality of air and control of air
pollution;

BE it enacted by Parliament in the Thirty-second Year of the Republic of India as

follows:-

1. Short title, extent and commencement

(1) This Act may be called the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

(2) It extends to the whole of India

(3) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, appoint

2. Definitions
In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,-

(a) "air pollutant" means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance 2[(including noise)]
present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious
to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property or environment;

(b) "air pollution" means the presence in the atmosphere of any air

(c) "approved appliances" means any equipment or gadget used for the bringing of
any combustible material or for generating or consuming any fume, gas of
particulate matter and approved by the State Board for the purpose of this Act;

(d) "approved fuel" means any fuel approved by the State Board for the purposes
of this Act;

(e) "automobile" means any vehicle powered either by internal combustion engine or
by any method of generating power to drive such vehicle by burning fuel;

(f) "Board" means the Central Board or State Board;

(g) "Central Board- means the 3[Central Board for the Prevention and Control of
Water Pollution] constituted under section 3 of the Water (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act, 1974;

(h) "chimney" includes any structure with an opening or outlet from or through
which any air pollutant may be emitted,

(i) "control equipment" means any apparatus, device, equipment or system to

control the quality and manner of emission of any air pollutant and includes any
device used for securing the efficient operation of any industrial plant;

(j) "emission" means any solid or liquid or gaseous substance coming out of any
chimney, duct or flue or any other outlet;

(k) "industrial plant" means any plant used for any industrial or trade purposes and
emitting any air pollutant into the atmosphere;

(l) "member" means a member of the Central Board or a State Board, as the case
may be, and includes the Chairman thereof,
4
[(m) "occupier", in relation to any factory or premises, means the person who has
control over the affairs of the factory or the premises, and includes, in relation to
any substance, the person in possession of the substance;]

(n) "prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this Act by the Central
Government or as the case may be, the State government;

(o) "State Board" means,-

(i) in relation to a State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of

Pollution) Act, 1974, is in force and the State Government has constituted
for that State a 5[State Board for the Prevention and Control of Water
Pollution] under section 4 of that Act, the said State Board; and

(ii) in relation to any other State, the State Board for the Prevention and
Control of Air Pollution constituted by the State Government under section
5 of this Act

CENTRAL AND STATE BOARDS FOR THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF

AIR POLLUTION

3. Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution

The Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution constituted
under section 3 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of
1974), shall, without prejudice to the exercise and performance of its powers and
functions under this Act, exercise the powers and perform the functions of the
Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under this Act

4. State Boards for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution to be,
State Boards for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution

In any State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6
of 1974), is in force and the State Government has constituted for that State a
State Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution under section 4 of
that Act, such State Board shall be deemed to be the State Board for the
Prevention and Control of air Pollution constituted under section 5 of this Act and
accordingly that State Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution
shall, without prejudice to the exercise and performance of its powers and
functions under that Act, exercise the powers and perform the functions of the
State Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under this Act]

5. Constitution of State Boards

(1) In any State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
(6 of 1974), is not in force, or that Act is in force but the State Government has
not constituted a 8[State Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution]
under that Act, the State Government shall, with effect from such date as it may,
by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a State Board for the
Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under such name as may be specified in the
notification, to exercise the powers conferred on, and perform the functions
assigned to, that Board under this Act

(2) A State Board constituted under this Act shall consist of the following
members, namely:-

(a) a Chairman, being a person, having a person having special knowledge or

practical experience in respect of matters relating to environmental
protection, to be nominated by the State Government:

Provided that the Chairman my be either whole-time or part-time as the

State Government may think fit;

(b) such number of officials, not exceeding five, as the State Government
may think fit, to be nominated by the State Government to represent that
government;
 (c) such number of persons, not exceeding five, as the State Government
may think fit, to be nominated by the State Government from amongst the
members of the local authorities functioning within the State;

(d) such number of non-officials, not exceeding three, as the State

Government may think fit, to be nominated by the State Government to
represent the interest of agriculture, fishery or industry or trade or labor
or any other interest, which in the opinion of that government, ought to be
represented;

(e) two persons to represent the companies or corporations owned,

controlled or managed by the State Government, to be nominated by that
Government;

9
[(f) a full-time member-secretary having such qualifications knowledge and
experience of scientific, engineering or management aspects of pollution
control as may be prescribed, to be appointed by the State Governments

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF BOARDS

16 Functions of Central Board

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the
performance, of its functions under the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, IL974 (6 of 1974), the main functions of the Central Board shall be
to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the
country

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing

functions, the Central Board may-
(a) advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the
improvement of the quality of air and the prevention, control or abatement
of air pollution;

(b) plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide program for the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution;

(c) co-ordinate the activities of the State and resolve dispute among them;

(d) provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out
and sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution
and prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;

[(dd) perform such of the function of any State Board as may, be specified
12

in and order made under sub-section (2) of section 18;]

(e) plan and organize the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in

programs for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution on such
terms and conditions as the Central Board may specify;

(f) organize through mass media a comprehensive program regarding the

prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;

(g) collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air
pollution and the measures devised for its effective prevention, control or
abatement and prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution;

(h) lay down standards for the quality of air,

(i) collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating to air

pollution;

(j) perform such other functions as may be prescribed

(3) The Central Board may establish or recognize a laboratory or laboratories to
enable the Central Board to perform its functions under this section efficiently

(4) The Central Board may-

(a) delegate any of its functions under this Act generally or specially to any of the
committees appointed by it;

(b) do such other things and perform such other acts as it may think necessary for
the proper discharge of its functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into
effect the purposes Of this Act

17 Functions of State Boards

(1) subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the performance
of its functions, if any, under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974 (Act 6 of 1974), the functions of a State Board shall be-

(a) to plan a comprehensive program for the prevention, control or

abatement of air pollution and to secure the execution thereof-,

(b) to advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution;

(c) to collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution;

(d) to collaborate with the Central Board in organizing the training of

persons engaged or to be engaged in programs relating to prevention, control
or abatement of air pollution and to organize mass-education program
relating thereto;

(e) to inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant
or manufacturing process and to give, by order, such directions to such
 persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution;

(f) to inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as it may think
necessary, assess the quality of air therein and take steps for the
prevention, control or abatement of air pollution in such areas;

(g) to lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having regard to
the standards for the quality of air laid down by the Central Board,
standards for emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere from industrial
plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air pollutant into the
atmosphere from any other source whatsoever not being a ship or an
aircraft:

Provided that different standards for emission may be laid down under this
clause for different industrial plants having regard to the quantity and
composition of emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere from such
industrial plants;

(h) to advise the State Government with respect to the suitability of any
premises or location for carrying on any industry this is likely to cause air
pollution;

(i) to Perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from

time to time, be entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State
Government;

(j) to do such other things and to perform such other acts as it may think
necessary for the proper discharge of its functions and generally for the
purpose of carrying into effect the purposes of this Act

(2) A State Board may establish or recognize a laboratory or laboratories to

enable the State Board to perform its functions under this section efficiently
18 Power to give directions

[(]) In the performance of its functions under this Act-

13

(a) the Central Board shall be bound by such directions in writing as the
Central Government may give to it; and

(b) every State Board shall be bound by such directions in writing as the
Central Board or the State Government may give to it:

Provided that where a direction given by the State Government is

inconsistent with the direction given by the Central Board, the matter shall
be referred to the Central Government for its decision

14
[(2) Where the Central Government is of the opinion that any State Board has
defaulted in complying with any directions given by the Central Board under sub-
section (1) and as a result of such default a grave emergency has arisen and it is
necessary or expedient so to do in the public interest, it m4y, by order, direct the
Central Board to perform any of the functions of the State Board in relation to
such area, for such period and for such purposes, as may be specified in the order

(3) Where the Central Board performs any of the functions of the State Board in
pursuance of a direction under sub-section (2), the expenses, if any incurred by
the Central Board with respect to the performance of such functions may, if the
State Board is empowered to recover such expenses, be recovered by the Central
Board with interest (at such reasonable rate as the Central Government may, by
order, fix) from the date when a demand for such expenses is made until it is paid
from the person or persons concerned as arrears of land revenue or of public
demand

(4) For the removal of doubts, it is hereby declared that any directions to perform
the functions of any State Board given under sub-section (2) in respect of any area
would not preclude the State Board from performing such functions in any other
area in the State or any of its other functions’ in that area]

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

19 Power to declare air pollution control areas,

(1) The State Government may, after consultation with the State Board, by
notification in the Official Gazette declare in such manner as may be prescribed,
any area or areas within the State as air pollution control area or areas for the
purposes of this Act

(2) The State government may, after consultation with the State Board, by
notification in the Official Gazette,-

(a) alter any air pollution control area whether by way of extension or
reduction;

(b) declare a new air pollution control area in which may be merged one or
more existing air pollution control areas or any part or parts thereof

(3) If the State Government, after consultation with the State Board, is of opinion
that the use of any fuel, other than an approved fuel, in any air pollution control
area or part thereof, may cause or is likely to cause air pollution, it may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, prohibit the use of such fuel in such area or
part thereof with effect from such date (being not less than three months from
the date of publication of the notification) as may be specified in the notification

(4) The State Government may, after consultation with the Sate Board, by
notification in the Official Gazette, direct that with effect fr6m such date as may
be specified therein, no appliance, other than an approved appliance, shall be used
in the premises situated in an air pollution control area:
Provided that different dates may be specified for different parts of an air
pollution control area or for the use of different appliances

(5) If the State Government, after consultation with the State Board, is of opinion
that the burning of any material (not being fuel) in any air pollution control area or
part thereof may cause or is likely to cause air pollution, it may, by notification in
the Official Gazette, prohibit the burning of such material in such area or part
thereof

20 Power to give instructions for ensuring standards for emission from

automobiles

With a view to ensuring that the standards for emission of air pollutants from
automobiles laid down by the State Board tinder clause (g) of sub-section (1) of
section 17 are complied with, the State Government shall, in consultation with the
State Board, give such instructions as may be deemed necessary to the concerned
authority in charge of registration of motor vehicles under the Motor Vehicles
Act, 1939 (Act 4 of 1939), and such authority shall, notwithstanding anything
contained in that Act or the rules made thereunder be bound to comply with such
instructions

21 Restrictions on use of certain industrial plants

15
[(/) Subject to the provisions of this section, no person shall, without the
previous consent of the State Board, establish or operate any industrial plant in an
air pollution control area :

Provided that a person operating any industrial plant in any air pollution control
area, immediately before the commencement of section 9 of the Air (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act, 1987, for which no consent was
necessary prior to such commencement, may continue to do so for a period of
three months from such commencement or, if he has made an application for such
consent within the said period of three months, till the disposal of such
application]

(2) An application for consent of the State Board under sub-section (1) shall be
accompanied by such fees as may be prescribed 'and shall be made in the
prescribed form and shall contain the particulars of the industrial plant and such
other particulars as may be prescribed:

Provided that where any person, immediately before the declaration of any area as
an air pollution control area, operates in such area any industrial plant, 16
such
person shall make the application under this sub-section within such period (being
not less than three months from the date of such declaration) as may be
prescribed and where such person makes such application, he shall be deemed to be
operating such industrial plant with the consent of the State Board until the
consent applied for has been refused,

(3) The State Board may make such inquiry as it may deem fit in respect of the
application for consent referred to in sub-section (1) and in making any such
inquiry, shall follow such procedure as may be prescribed

(4) Within a period of four months after the receipt of the application for consent
referred to in sub-section (1), the State Board shall, by order in writing, 17[and for
reasons to be recorded in the order, grant the consent applied for subject to such
conditions and for such period as may be specified in the order, or refuse consent:]

18
[Provided that it shall be open to the State Board to cancel such consent before
the expiry of the period for which it is granted or refuse further consent after
such expiry if the conditions subject to which such consent has been granted are
not fulfilled:

Provided further that before cancelling a consent or refusing a further consent

under the first provision, a reasonable opportunity of being heard shall be given to
the person concerned]
(5) Every person to whom consent has been granted by the State Board under sub-
section (4), shall comply with the following conditions, namely -

(i) the control equipment of such specifications as the State Board may
approve in this behalf shall be installed and operated in the premises where
the industry is carried on or proposed to be carried on;

(ii) the existing control equipment, if any, shall be altered or replaced in

accordance with the directions of the State Board;

(iii) the control equipment referred to in clause (i) or clause (ii) shall be kept
at all times in good running condition;

(iv) chimney, wherever necessary, of such specifications as the State Board

may approve in this behalf shall be erected or re-erected in such premises;
and

(v) such other conditions as the State Board, may specify in this behalf,

(vi) the conditions referred to in clauses (i), (ii) and (iv) shall be complied
with within such period as the State Board may specify in this behalf-

Provided that in the case of a person operating any industrial plant 19

in an
air pollution control area immediately before the date of declaration of such
area as an air pollution control area, the period so specified shall not be less
than six months :

Provided further that-

(a) after the installation of any control equipment in accordance with the
specifications under clause (i), or

(b) after the alteration or replacement of any control equipment in

accordance with the directions of the State Board under clause (ii), or
 (c) after the erection or re-erection of any chimney under clause (iv), no
control equipment or chimney shall be altered or replaced or, as the case
may be, erected or re-created except with the previous approval of the
State Board

(6) If due to any technological improvement or otherwise the State Board is of

opinion that all or any of the conditions referred to in sub-section (5) require or
requires variation (including the change of any control equipment, either in whole or
in part), the State Board shall, after giving the person to whom consent has been
granted an opportunity of being heard, vary all or any of such conditions and
thereupon such person shall be bound to comply with the conditions as so varied

(7) Where a person to whom consent has been granted by the State Board under
sub-section (4) transfers his interest in the industry to any other person, such
consent shall be deemed to have been granted to such other person and he shall be
bound to comply with all the conditions subject to which it was granted as if the
consent was granted to him originally

23. Furnishing, of information to State Board and other agencies in certain

cases.

(1) Where in any 22

*** area the emission of any air pollutant into the atmosphere in
excess of the standards laid down by the State Board occurs or is apprehended to
occur due to accident or other unforeseen act or event, the person in charge of
the premises from where which emission occurs or is apprehended to occur shall
forthwith intimate the fact of such occurrence or the apprehension of such
occurrence to the State Board and to such authorities or agencies as may be
prescribed.

(2) On receipt of information with respect to the fact or the apprehension of any
occurrence of the nature referred to in sub-section (1), whether through
intimation under that sub-section or otherwise, the State Board and the
authorities or agencies shall, as early as practicable, cause such remedial measure
to be taken as are necessary to mitigate the emission of such air pollutants.

(3) Expenses, if any, incurred by the State Board, authority or agency with respect
to the remedial measures referred to in sub-section (2) together with interest ("t
such reasonable rate, as the State Government may, by order, fix) from the date
when a demand for the expenses is made until it is paid, may be recovered by that
Board, authority or agency from the person concerned, as arrears of land revenue,
or of public demand.

24. Power of entry and inspection.

(1) Subject to the provisions of this section, any person empowered by a State
Board in this behalf shall have a right to enter, at all reasonable times with such
assistance as he considers necessary, and any place---

(a) for the purpose of performing any of the functions of the State Board
entrusted to him:

(b) for the purpose of determining whether and if so in what manner, any
such functions are to be performed or whether any provisions of this Act or
the rules made thereunder or any notice, order, direction or authorization
served, made, given or granted under this Act is being or has been complied
with;

(c) for the purpose of examining and testing any control equipment,
industrial plant, record, register, document or any other material object or
for conducting a search of any place in which he has reason to believe that
an offence under this Act or the rules made has been or is being or is about
to be committed and for seizing any such control equipment, industrial plant,
record, register, document or other material object if he has reasons to
believe that it may furnish evidence of the commission of an offence
punishable under this Act or the rules made thereunder.
(2) Every person 23
*** operating any control equipment or any industrial plant, in an
air pollution control area shall be bound to render all assistance to the person
empowered by the State Board under sub-section (1) for carrying out the functions
under that sub-section and if he fails to do so without any reasonable cause or
excuse, he shall be guilty of an offence under this Act.

(3) If any person willfully delays or obstructs any person empowered by the State
Board under sub-section (1) in the discharge of his duties, he shall be guilty of an
offence under this Act.

(4) The provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, or, in relation to the
State of Jammu and Kashmir, or any area, in which that Code is not in force, the
provisions of any corresponding law in force in that State or area, shall, so far as
may be, apply to any search or seizure under this section as they apply to any
search or seizure made under the authority of a warrant issued under section 94
of the said Code or, as the case may be, under the corresponding provisions of the
said law.

25. Power to obtain information.

For the purposes of carrying out the functions entrusted to it, the State Board or
any officer empowered by it in Ns behalf may call for any information (including
information regarding the types of air pollutants emitted into the atmosphere and
the level of the emission of such air pollutants) from the occupier or any other
person carrying oil any industry or operating any control equipment or industrial
plant and for the purpose of verifying the correctness of such information, the
State Board or such officer shall have the right to inspect the premises where
such industry, control equipment or industrial plant is being carried on or operated.
26. Power to take samples of air or emission and procedure to be followed in
connection therewith.

(1) A State Board or any officer empowered by it in this behalf shall have power to
take, for the purpose of analysis, samples of air or emission from any chimney, flue
or duct or any other outlet in such manner as may be prescribed.

(2) The result of any analysis of a sample of emission taken under subsection (1)
shall not be admissible in evidence in any legal proceeding unless the provisions of
sub-sections (3) and (4) are complied with.

(3) Subject to the provisions of sub-section (4), when a sample of emission is taken
for analysis under sub-section (1), the person taking the sample shall-

(a) serve on the occupier or his agent, a notice, then and there, in such form
as may be prescribed, of his intention to have it so analyzed;

(b) in the presence of the occupier or his agent, collect a sample of emission
for analysis;

(c) cause the sample to be placed in a container or containers which shall be

marked and sealed and shall also be signed both by the person taking the
sample and the occupier or his agent;

(d) send, without delay, the container to the laboratory established or

recognized by the State Board under section 17 or, if a request in that
behalf is made by the occupier or his agent when the notice is served on him
under clause (a), to the laboratory established or specified under sub-
section (1) of section 28.

(4) When a sample of emission is taken for analysis under sub-section (1) and the
person taking the sample serves on the occupier or his agent, a notice under clause
(a) of sub-section (3), then,-
 (a) in a case where the occupier or his agent willfully absents himself, the
person taking the sample shall collect the sample of emission for analysis to
be placed in a container or containers which shall be marked and sealed and
shall also be signed by the person taking the sample, and

(b) in a case where the occupier or his agent is present at the time of taking
the sample but refuses to sign the marked and scaled container or
containers of the sample of emission as required under clause (c) of
subsection (3), the marked and sealed container or containers shall be signed
by the person taking the sample,

and the container or containers shall be sent without delay by the person 'Caking
the sample for analysis to the laboratory established or specified under sub-
section (7) of section 28 and such person shall inform the Government analyst
appointed under sub-section (1) of section 29, in writing, about the willful absence
of the occupier or his agent, or, as the case may be, his refusal to sing the
container or containers.

LANDMARK CASES ON ENVIRONMENT

Mr. M.C Mehta’s legal career has promoted environmental justice, protected the
cultural heritage of the country, and secured fundamental human rights.
His important cases include:

TAJ MAHAL CASE:

In his first environmental law case, Mehta sought to protect the TajMahal, a
cultural treasure of India and the world. The Taj faced serious threats from
pollution from nearby industries. The area around the taj was known as TAJ
TRAPEZIUM ZONE (TTZ). As a result of Mehta’s suit, the Supreme Court of India
banned the use of coal by industries in the Taj Trapezium and ordered the planting
of more than 200000 trees surrounding the TajMahal. The government told the
industrialists either to use any other fuel except coal or to leave that area. Mehta
began this action more than twenty years ago and has made nearly a thousand
appearances before the Court in this case. His efforts continue to this day.

Conclusion
Air Pollution is a hazardous phenomena . It’s causing various problems to human and
animal life.Various health problems and skin diseases such as lung cancer etc.Due to
excess of air pollution our ozone layer is getting depleted day by day leading to
global warming. Due to depletion of ozone layer, infrared radiations from sun
enters into our earth’s surface leading to increase in temperature.As,the
temperature is increasing glaciers are melting which increases the sea level.

Various steps are being taken but no change seems to be working .So,we should all
take a step from ourselves to save our planet.
Materials And Methods
This project is solely based on secondary information and facts
collected from the internet. The subject has been studied and
modified to suit the purpose, but care has been taken to avoid any
misleading information or facts.

Future Prospects
This project has a lot of potential for further research and studies.
This project can act as input for projects or studies related to air
pollution, including event studies, research papers etc.

References
The Internet –

 www.google.com
 www.wikipedia.org
 www.ekh.unep.org
 www.answers.com