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Basic Theory
Biology Cell

Cell biology is the discipline that studies cells to

answer scientific questions. All organisms are
composed of one or more cells and all vita l functions
of an organism occur within cells. Cells contain the
hereditary information necessary for regulating cell
functions. Cells possess DNA, the hereditary material
of genes, and RNA, containing the information
necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes,
the cell's primary machinery. There are also other
kinds of biomolecules in cells, e.g. lipids, proteins,
macromolecules, etc.
Cell biology research includes learning the physiological properties such as the
structure and the organelles of cells, their environment and interactions, their life
cycle, division and function and eventual death. This is done both on microscopic and
molecular level, and includes the research of single-celled organisms like bacteria as
well as specialised cells in multicellular organisms like humans.

Light Microscopy

The light microscope, so called because it employs visible light to detect small
objects, is probably the most well-known and well-used research tool in biology. Yet,
many students and teachers are unaware of the full range of features that are
available in light microscopes. Since the cost of an instrument increases with its
quality and versatility, the best instruments are, unfortunately, unavailable to most
academic programs. However, even the most inexpensive "student" microscopes can
provide spectacular views of nature and can enable students to perfo rm some
reasonably sophisticated experiments.

A beginner tends to think that the challenge of viewing small

objects lies in getting enough magnification. In fact, when it comes
to looking at living things the biggest challenges are, in order,

 obtaining sufficient contrast

 finding the focal plane
 obtaining good resolution
 recognizing the subject when one sees it

The smallest objects that are considered to be living are the bacteria. The smallest
bacteria can be observed and cell shape recognized at a mere 100x magnification.
They are invisible in bright field microscopes, though. These pages will describe
types of optics that are used to obtain contrast, suggestions for finding specimens
and focusing on them, and advice on using measurement devices with a light
microscope.
Experiment
Microscope

Purpose: To see the object

Materials:

Microscpe and the object (Human Blood, Muscle, Monocotyledon, Dicotyledon, Pine Leaf Cs,
Onion root, and Stem)

Metods:
 Prepare all the materials
 Then, place the slice of each object on the microscope
 Set the magnification: 40X (objective lens 4X, and the ocular lens zoom until 10X)
 If we have 4X magnification, we can set the focus with coarse focus knob or the fine focus
knob, but it won’t affect so much
 If we have 10X and more than 10X magnification, we must set the focus with fine focus.

Human Blood Muscle

Monocotyledon Dicotyledon
 Pine Leaf Cs. Onion root

Stem

Conclusion:

If we want to get clearly and more detail object on the picture on the microscope,
we can take the more magnification, and then we also must set the focus to make
it clearer.
Basic Theory

1. Testing for carbohydrates

Benedict’s test

Benedict's solution is used to test for simple carbohydrates.

Benedict's solution is a blue colored liquid that contains copper ions.
When Benedict's solution and simple carbohydrates are heated, the
solution changes to orange red/ brick red. This reaction is caused by
the reducing property of simple carbohydrates. The copper (II) ions in
the Benedict's solution are reduced to Copper (I) ions, which causes
the color change. Sometimes a brick red solid, copper oxide,
precipitates out of the solution and collects at the bottom of the test
tube. Complex carbohydrates such as starches do not react positive
with the Benedict's test unless they are broken down through heating
or digestion (try chewing crackers and then doing the test). Table
sugar (disaccharide) is a non-reducing sugar and does also not react
with the iodine or with the Benedict Reagent. Sugar needs to be
decomposed into its components glucose and fructose then the
glucose test would be positive but the starch test would still be
negative.

2. Testing for lipids

Emulsion test

The emulsion test is a method to determine the presence

of lipids using wet chemistry. The procedure is for the sample to be
suspended in ethanol, allowing lipids present to dissolve. The ethanolic
solution is then decanted into water. Since lipids do not dissolve in
water, when the ethanol is diluted, it falls out of solution to give
an emulsion.

3. Testing for proteins 

Buiret test
Buiret solution is a blue liquid that changes to purple when
proteins are present and to pink in the presence of short chains of
polypeptides. The copper atom of the biuret solution reacts with the
peptide bonds to cause the color change.
 Experiment
Testing for the prensence of sugars

Step for monosaccharides:

1. Add benedict’s reagent to the solution you are testing

2. Heat it in a water bath

3. If the solution is reducing sugar, the solution will gradually turn through
green, yellow, and orange to brick red as the insoluble copper sulphate forms a
precipitate

If the solution is disaccharides, you would get a negative result from the test

Step for polysaccharides:

1. Heat the sugar solution with an acid to hydrolyse any glycosidic bonds
present
2. Adding an alkaline such as sodium hydroxide to neutralise the solution
3. Add benedict’s reagent and heat as before and look for the colour
change

Testing for presence of lipids

Step:
1. Add the substance that is thought to contain lipids into some absolute
ethanol (with a little or no water in it)
2. Shake the solution vigorously
3. Pour the ethanol into a tube containing water
4. Look at the change of ethanol, if there is a lipid it can’t remain
dissolved when mixed with the water so the light can’t pass
unimpeded through this mixture
 Testing for the presence of proteins
Step:
1. Add a biuret’s reagent to the substance that is thought to contain
protein (a biuret solution has to contain both the copper II sulfate
solution and the hydroxide ready-mixed)
2. Look at the colour change, if the substance contain the protein, a
purple colour will appear

Testing for a presence of starch

Step:

1. Add iodine complex to the substance that is thought to contain starch

2. If the substance contain starch the solution will turn from orange-brown
colour into blue-black colour

Matter BIURET ALKHOHOL + Light

A + -
B + +
C - -
D - -
E - -
F - +
G - -
Conclusion
Matter A contain protein but no lipid

Matter B contain protein and lipid

Matter C contain no protein and no lipid

Matter D contain no protein and no lipid

Matter E contain no protein and no lipid

Matter F contain no protein but there’s lipid

Matter G contain no protein and no lipid

SAQ 2.2

a.) Why do you need to use excess Benedict’s reagent if you want to
get an idea of the concentration of a sugar solution?
 We use excess Benedict’s reagent to make it more than
enough to react with all of the sugar and if we want
b.) Outline how you could use the Benedeict’s tet to estimate the
concentration of a solution of a reducing sugar.
 We should use the benedict’s test to estimate the
concentration of a solution of a reducing segar by looking
the inentsity of the red colour or we can use calorimeter to
measure subtle diffrences in colour precisely.

SAQ 2.3

You have a solution which you know contains sugar but you do not
know whether it is reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar or a mixture
of both. How can you find out?

 First of all we should check the present of reducing sugar.

Add benedict’s reagent to the solution we are testing and
heat it in a water bath. If a reducing sugar is present, the
solution will gradually turn through green, yellow and
orange to brick red. If the result is negative, we must go on
to second stage of test to see wheter such a non-reducing
sugar is present.......

SAQ 2.7

Where in a protein molecule are amino groups found?

 Amino groups found in all protein molecule