CHAPTER-11

HEAT

Heat as energy in transit:

Heat is form of energy that flows from the system to the surroundings or vice versa
because of temperature difference between then.

Explanation:

Caloric Theory:

According to caloric theory heat is a weightless and colourless fluid (caloric), which can
pass from one body to another body. According to this theory we can not produce or create heat.
We know that heat is produced by friction. For example when we rub our hands they become
warm. Thus caloric theory was rejected since it could not account for the fact that why heat is
produced by friction.

Mechanical theory of heat:

According to the mechanical theory heat is lot a fluid but it is a form of energy.

Romford rejected the caloric theory and said that heat can be produced by friction.
i.e doing mechanical work. Joule performed a number of experiments and proved that
heat like work represents a transfer of energy (or energy in transit)

Microscopic view of Heat:

According to this view one the heat energy is transferred to a body, it is converted
in the internal energy of the body. The internal energy is the sum of all the microscopit
kinetic and potential energies of the molecules in the body. Therefore heat is not the
energy that a body contains but is the amount of energy transferred from hot body to a
cold body.

Unit:
The S.I unit of heat is Joule (J) and one Joule can be defined as:
“The energy or heat equivalent to the work done when the point of application of in force
moves through one meter (m) in the direction of force.
TEMPTERATURE
“The quantities determination of the degree of hotness is called temperature”.
The temperature is that property which determines the direction of flow of heat from one
body to another body when they are brought in thermal contact. Heat always flows from a body

1
at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. The precise definition of temperature is
“It is the average K.E of the molecules of a substance.

Thermometer:

It is a device used for the accurate measurement of temperature of a body

Thermometry:

To measure temperature some property of matter that changes uniformly temperature is

sued. Such property of matter is called thermometric property. Thus thermometry is that branch
of heat which is used for the measurement of temperature. The most commonly used property of
matter is the expansion of liquid or gas.

The other properties used are:

∗ Change in electrical resistance of a wire

∗ Change in vapour pressure
∗ Change in colours emitted by a hot solid.

Principle of the thermometer: The principle of thermometer is that, matter

expands on heating.

Mercury in Glass thermometer: To construct an ordinary mercury thermometer a

bulb is filled with mercury and is fitted is a capillary tube. The bulb is first placed in melting ice,
the mercury contracts and it s level falls in the capillary tube. When it stops following, we put
mark on the capillary tube. Next the bulb is placed in boiling water, the mercury in the capillary
tube. When it stop rising, we put mark on the capillary tube.

Three scales of temperatures: To construct a scale of temperature two fixed

points called reference temperatures are necessary one fixed point is called as melting point of
water. These points are marked when thermometer is placed in a vessel containing melting ice
and secondly by placing in boiling water at atmospheric pressure of 760 mm of mercury.

There are three different scales of temperature.

1. Celsius or centigrade scale

2. Fahrenhite scale
3. Absolute or Kelvin scale
On centigrade scale: The two fixed points are marked at 0 to 100. The space between
these two points is divided into 100 equal parts and each part is called one degree Celsius and is
denoted as 1oC.

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On Fahrenheit scale: The two fixed points are marked at 32 and 212 the space
between these two point is divided into 180 equal division and each division is called a1oF >
1oC.

On Kelvin scale: The melting point of ice is marked at 273 and boiling point of water a5
373 the space between them is divided into 100 equal parts and each part is called IK.

RELATION B/W CELSIUS AND FAHRENHITE

Consider two thermometer by placed in a bath and the mercury in each thermometer rises
to the same level. It is clear from figure

That
AC TC − 0
=
AB 100 − 0
OR
AC TC
= −1
AB 100

Again from figure

AC TF − 32
= −
BC 212 − 32

OR

AC TF − 32
= − ii
AB 180

By comparing equation (i) and (ii), we have

TC TF − 32
=
5 180

OR
TC TF − 32
= = iii
5 9

Equation (iii) is called the relation b/w Tc and Tf

Conversion of temperature from one scale to another scale

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 TC Tf − 32 Tk − 273
= =
5 9 5

MERCURY AS THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCE

Mercury is selected for the following reasons

 It has low specific heat and hence it absorbs little heat from the body whose temperature
is being measured.

 It is good conductor of heat and attain the temperature of the body quickly.

 It does not wet the walls of the glass tube

 It can easily seen in a capillary tube

 It remains liquid over a large range. Its freezing point is39oC and boiling point is 357 oC.

Thermal expansion:

The expansion of the substances on heating is called as THERMAL EXPANSION

Explanation: It is found that most of the solid expand on heating if the pressure is kept constant.
When we heat a solid then the K.E of its molecules increases. So the molecules then start rib
rating with large amplitude against the action of intermolecular forces. Therefore the average
distances among the molecules increase. It is found that solids on heating expand in all
directions, so we will define

 Linear expansion
 Volume

Q DEFINELINEAR EXPANSION WHAT IS COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR

EXPANSION

Answer: Linear Expansion

The increase length of a solid on heating is called as linear expansion
Coefficient of linear expansion: Consider a rod of length lo at some initial
temperature T. when temperature of rod is increased to ( Τ + ∆ Τ) there its length becomes (Lo +
∆L). It is found that change in length ∆L is directly proportional to the original length and the
rise in temperature ∆Τ
So we can write
∆L α Lo ∆Τ

OR
∆L = ×Lo ∆Τ

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 Where X is constant, called coefficient of linear expansion and defined as
“Change in length per unit length per degree rise in temperature”.
Mathematically we can write
∆L 1
α= × =2
Lo ∆ Τ

The S.I unit of ∝ is K-1

The value of ∝ is constant and different for different substances.

e.g. the value of ∝ for AL is 24 X 10-6 K-1 and value of ∝ for cu is17 X 10-16 K-1 .

Final length:

It Lt is the length of the rod after heating.

Lt =Lo + ∆L
OR
Lt =Lo + ∝ Lo ∆Τ ( ∆L =∝ Lo ∆ Τ)

OR Lt = Lo (1 + ∝ ∆Τ) −3

Q. DEFINE VOLUME EXPANSION. WHAT IS COEFFICIENT OF

VOLUME M EXPANSION

Answer: Volume Expansion

The increase in volume of solid on heating is called volume expansion.

COEFFICIENT OF VOLUME EXPANSION

Consider a metallic body of volume Vo at some initial temperature. Its volume changes
by ∆V when temperature changes by ∆Τ

It is found experimentally that

∆ ∨ α ∨ o ∆Τ
OR ∆∨ = β V  ∆ Τ− 1
Where β is called coefficient of volume expansion and is defined as. “Change in volume per
unit volume per degree rise in temperature.”

Mathematically we can write

∆∨ 1
β= × −2
∆∨ ∆ Τ
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 The S.I of β is K-1 the value of β is constant and different for different substance, eg.
The value of β for Hg 18.2 × 10-5 K-1. The Vt is the volume after heating

Vt = Vo + ∆V
Or Vt =Vo + βVo ∆Τ
Or Vt = Vo (1 + β∆Τ) − 3

Q. PROVE THAT β =3 ∝ OR ∝ =β =3

Consider a solid rectangular cube whose dimensions at temperature T are L1, L2 and L3.
Let it be heated to the temperature ( (T + ∆Τ), where the length of each side increased to L1
(1 +α∆Τ) , L2 (1 +α∆Τ) and L3 (1 +α∆Τ) .
Mathematically we can write
Vo = L1 × L2 × L3

and Vt = Vo + ∆ V

OR
Vo + ∆ V L1t x L2t x L3t
OR
Vo + ∆ V = L1L2L3 (1 + ∝ ∆ V)3

OR

Vo + ∆ V = Vo (1 + ∝ ∆ V)3
(∴ Vo = L1 L2 L3)

OR

Vo + ∆ V = [ (1)3 +3 (1)2 (∝ ∆ T) + 3 (1) (∝ ∆ T)2 + (∝ ∆ T)3 ]

As volume of ∝ is very small, therefore terms containing ∝2 and higher power may be
negtected

(∴ Vo + ∆ T = Vo (1 + 3 ∝ ∆ T)

OR

∆ V = 3∝ Vo ∆ T

OR
∆V 1
× = 3α
Vo ∆Τ

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 ∆V 1
× = 3α
Vo ∆Τ

OR
∆Τ 1
β =3∝  β= ×
Vo ∆Τ
OR
∝ = ∝ /3
Proved

Bimetallic thermometer: Thermal expansion can be put to many practical uses. For
example, bimetallic thermometer.

Two dissimilar metal strips whose co-efficient of linear expansion are different are
welded together, when such a strip is heated, the different amount of exparison of two metals
causes such a bimetallic strip to end a bimetallic thermometer such a strip is in the form of coil
one of end of coil is fixed and the other is attached to a pointer moves over a scale and notes the
temperature.

Bimetallic are also used in thermostat devices which are sued for maintaining required
temperature.

GAS LAWS

Q. STATE AND EXPLAIN BOYLE’S LAW

ANS:- BOYLS LAW:

It stated that “the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure, provided temperature remains constant.”

Mathematically we can write

1
Vα If T = constant
p

OR
Constant
V=
P

OR PV = constant

If we plot a graph between pressure and volume, we get a curve called HYPERBOLA as
shown in figure. If a gas passes from state 1 to state 2, its pressure increases from P1 to P2 and
Volume decreases from V1 to V2. But product of pressure and volume remains constant, so boy’s
law is written as

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 P1V1 = Constant
and P1 V1 = P2 V2

Q. STATE AND EXPLAIN CHARLE’S LAW?

CHARLES’S LAW: It states that “Volume of a given mass of a gas is directly

proportional to its absolute temperature, if the applied pressure is remains constant.

Mathematically
V ∝ T if P = constant

OR V = constant X T

OR V/T = constant

If we plot a graph between volume and temperature a straight line is obtained as shown in
figure.This straight line shows that volume increases proportionally with the rise3 in
temperature.
Thus charle’s Law is written as
V1 V 2
=
T1 T 2

Absolute zero: It is defined as that lowest temperature at which volume of gas becomes
zero. Its value is 273 oC

Explanation: We know that if a graph b/w vaud T is plotted a straight line is obtained. If
this line is produced backword, it meets the temperature axis at -273 oC, where volume is zero.
We can not produced this line further, as there 0273 oC Tep the volume of the gas will be
negative which is meaningless. Therefore-273 oC is the lowest temperature that is why it is
selected as zero of the absolute scale and is given the name as absolute zero.

Q. DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR GENERAL GAS LAW?

GENERAL GAS LAW: In order to derive General gas law, we will combine
Boyle's Law.
According to Boyle’s Law

1
Vα if T= constant
P
According to Charle's Law

V ∝ T if P = constant

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 According to Boyle’s Law the change in pressure from P2 to P2 is accompanied by a
change in volume from V1to V

Mathematically

P1 V1 = P2V

P1V1
OR V = −1
p2

Now by changing the temperature from T1 to T2 at constant pressure P2 the volume of

gas changes from V to V2 then according to charle’s law we have

V V
= 2
T1 T2

T1 V1
OR V = -2
P2

By comparing eq.1 and 2, we have

P1 V1 T V
= 2 1
P2 T2
OR

P1 V 1 P2 V2 PV PV
= OR = CONSTAN OR = ∩R
T1 T2 T T

Hence PV = ∩ RT Where R + General gas constant 8.314J/ whole K

This is called General gas law

KIINETIC THEORY OF GASES: Kinetic theory of gases explains the behaviors of

gases in term s of intermolecular forces and the energy possessed by the molecules.

ASSUMPTIONS: Following of the some important assumptions of K.T. of gases.

1. A gas consists of particles called molecules. All the molecules of a gas in a stable state
are considered identical.

2. Any finite volume of a gas consists of very large m\number of these molecules. At
standard conditions where are 3 x 1025 molecules in cubic meter.

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 3. The molecules are separated by distance large as compared to their own dimensions. The
diameter of molecule is about 3 x 10-10.

4. The molecules move in random direction making elastic collision with one wither and
with the walls of the container.

5. Molecules exert noforces on one another except during collision.

6. Newtonian mechanics is applicable to the motion of molecules.

INTERPRETTION OF “P “ONK TOF GASES: To determine pressure, consider a

cubical container of side “L “. It contains large no. of molecules having random motion. The area
of each face of container is L2 and volume of container is L3.Consider a molecule of mass ‘m’
moving with velocity V1 having components V1x, V1y, and V1z. This molecule collides with face
A with velocity Vx and bounces back with velocity –V1x in time ∆ t.

Momentum of molecule before collision = mv1x. Momentum of molecule after collision = mv1x.
The change in momentum = 2mvx = ∆ P.

2L S
The round trip will be covered in time = ∆t = ( t = ) .
V1 x V

∆P 2mv1 x mv1 x 2
The rate of change of momentum = = =
∆T 2 L/ vix L

mv 1 x 2 ∆P
∴ The force exerted by one molecule of face A= F1 = ( F1 =
L ∆T

Let there be ‘N’ molecules in the container moving with velocities V1,V2,……..,VN.
Thus the net force exerted on face A=F=F1+ F2 +F3 +…….+ FN.

mv 1 x 2 mv 1 x 2 mv 3 x 2 mvn 2 x
OR F= + + + .......... ..... +
L L L L

OR F =M/L = ( V1x2 + V2x2 +………… + vnx2)

M / L(V1 x 2 + V 2 x 2 + ......... + vnx 2

AS P = F/A =
L2
m
OR P= (V1x2 + V2x2 + V3x2 +……………….. + Vnx2) 1
Lm

From equation 1

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 Nm V1 x 2 + V2 x 2 + V3 x 2 + .......... .. + Vnx 2
P= 3 ( )
L N

Nm V1 x 2 + V1 x 2 + ......... + Vnx 2 = vx 2
But = L (Density) and
L3 N

∴ P = evx2 1

As we know that

ˆ
V =vx iˆ +Vy ˆj +V2 K

OR V2 = Vx2 + Vy2 + Vz2

As the motion of molecules is random

∴ Vx2 = Vy2 = Vz2

Then

V2 = Vx2 + Vx2 + Vx2

V2 = 3Vx2 OR Vx2 = 1/3 V2 OR Vx2 = 1/3 V2

Now equation (2) becomes

1 2
P= eV
3

DERIVATION OF GAS LAWS:

Considering equation
2
1 eV
P= 3

2
1 mN V
OR P=
−3 V

1
OR P.V = mNu 2 v -1
3

NRT
As we know that PV = nRT = (eneral gas law)
NA

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 NRT
PV = -2
NA

By comparing equation (1) and (2), we have

/u 2
1 mN 3 R
= ( )
3 NA 2 NA

R
But = K = Boltzmanco ns tan t / = / − 38 ×10 −23 / molecule – K
NA

1
∴ mu 2 = 3 / 2 KT -3
2

1
OR mu 2 = αT
2

Hence equation (3) shows that average translational K.E per molecule is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature

1
Consider equation (1) pv = mn u 2
3
As if T= constant then u = constnat
Hence PV= constant
Which is Boyle’s Law

By comparing (1) and (3), we have

( Nk ) mu w
3PV
V= T (∴ from (1) put in (3)
P N
3/ PV 3/
If P = constant = KT
2/ N 2/
nk
V∝T V =( )T
P
This is charle’s law

HEAT CAPACITY OF SPECIFIC HEAT: It is found that for a given temperature

rises the amount of heat required is directly proportional to the mass of the body. It means if
mass of a substance is more then it absorbs more heat. Moreover change is temperature is
proportional to the heat supplied to the body.

Mathematically we can write

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 ∆ Q∝m

and ∆ Q∝∆ T

OR

∆ Q ∝ m∆ T

OR

∆ Q ∝ mc∆ T -1

Where C is proportionality constant and is known as Heat capacity OR specific heat.

“The specific heat can be defined as temperature of a unit mass of a substance through 1
o
C 1 K.”

Mathematically

∆Q
C= -2
m∆T
The unit of C is J/kg-k

It is found that the value of c different for different substances.

e.g
4200 J
The specific heat for water is Kg − K and specific heat for Al is 900 J/ Kg-K

DETERMIMATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT: We know that heat is a form of energy

so no heat is last when substances at different temperature are mixed. Therefore we will state
LAN OF HEAT EXCHANGE as in any heat transfer system the net heat energy lost by hot body
is always equal to the net heat gained by cold body.

Thus
Heat lost = Hat gained

OR Q lost = Q gained

OR m1c1 ∆ T1 = m2 c2 ∆ T2 -1

This equation gives the method called method of mixture for finding the unknown
specific heat of a substance. The hot substance of known mass and temperature but of unknown
specific heat is mixed with liquid of known and temperature. They are contained in a calorimeter
of known mass and temperature. After this the final temperature of the mixture is measured.
There fore by applying equation (1) we can determine the unknown specific heat.

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MOLAR SPECCIFIC HEAT: Molar specific heat is defined as “The amount of
heat energy required to raise the temperature of one more of any substance through 10 Corik”.

Mathematically it is written as

1 ∆Q
Cm = ×
n ∆T
The molar specific heat of water is 75 J/mole –K there are two specific heat of gases.

1. Molar specific heat of constant Pressure (CP):

It is defined as “The amount of heat energy required raising the temperature of one mole
of a gas through one degree at constant pressure”

2. Molar specific Heat at constant Volume CV: It is defined as “The

amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of one mole a gas through one degree at
constant volume”

Q. WHY CP IS GREATER THAN CV?

ANS when a gase is heated at constant volume the whole heat is used up to raise its
temperature. On the other hand, when a gas is heated at constant pressure, a part of the heat is
used to raise the temperature and a part is used to do external work to keep the pressure constant.

Thus Cp = Vc + Work done

OR Cp – Cv = R

Where R = universal gas constant

Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf)

“The amount of heat required to multiunit mass of solid to liquid at its melting point is
called latent heat of fusion”.

Lf = Q/a

J
The latent heat of fusion of ice is 336000 Kg
THERMODYNAMIC: It is that branch of physics which deals with transformation of heat
energy into mechanical energy i.e work

Q. WHAT IS HEAT ENGINE? DETERMINE EFFICIENCY OF HEAT

ENGINE HEAT ENGINE?

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 A heat engine is a device which converts heat energy into the mechanical energy.

Explanation: It is seen the working of all heat engines I same. Every heat engine absorbs
heat from hot body (HTR) converts a part of it into mechanical work and rejects the remaining
part to the cold body (LTR)

Efficiency: Efficiency is defined as ration of out put to the input. Here it is defined as the
ratio of net work done by the engine to the heat absorbed in each cycle. It is denoted by N (eta)
or E.

Mathematically we can write

E – W/Q1
OR
Q1 − Q
E= ( W = Q1 − Q2 )
Q1

Q2
OR E- 1 - -1
Q1

Q2
OR E % = (1- ) × 100
Q1

HEAT AND WORK IN THERMODYNAMICS:

Consider a gas contained in a cylinder with a moveable piston. In equilibrium the gas
occupied a volume V and exerts a pressure P on the walls of the cylinder on piston of area A.
The force exerted y the gas on the piston is

F = P × A ( P = F/A)

Where A is the area of Piston, Now suppose the gas is expanding slowly. As the piston
moves up a distance ∆Y

∆ W=F× ∆ Y

∆ W=P× A× ∆ Y

OR ∆ W = P (A × ∆ Y)

OR ∆ W=P× ∆ V

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 Hence if the gas expands, then ∆ V is positive and work done by the gas is
positive. If the gas is compressed ∆ V is negative and work done is negative.

Q. STATE AND EXPLAIN FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS?

SCUSS ITS APPLICATIONS STATEMENTS?

“Heat energy can be converted into other from of energy and other form of energy can be
converted into heat total energy of the system remains constant.”
OR
The heat energy supplied to a system is equal to the increase in the internal energy of the
system plus the work done by the system on its surroundings.

Explanation: Suppose an amount of heat “∆ Q” is added increase in the internal energy

appears as (i) an increase in the internal energy “∆ u” stored in the system and as (ii) The work
done “∆ W” by the system.

Mathematically this law is written as

∆ Q = ∆ u +∆ w -1

Where “∆ Q” is positive when it is given to the system and negative when it is given out
from the system.

“∆ w” is positive when work is done by the system and negative when work is done on
the system.

Internal energy: Internal energy is the sum of K.E of molecules and P.E of the
molecules due to force of alteraction present between them.

Change in internal energy:

We can write equation (1) as

∆ u= ∆ Q - ∆ w -2

Equation (2) states that the change in internal energy of the system is equal to the energy
flowing m, as heat minus energy flowing out as work.

Applications: There are four applications of first law of Thermodynamics

1. ISOBACRIC PROCESS: It is he process in which pressure of the system remains

constant. Consider a system consisting of gas, contained in cylinder. The cylinder is fitted with a

16
frictionless piston of area of crossection “A” as shown in figure (1). Suppose the piston is in
equilibrium under the action of force PA thus force is exerted by the gas.

So F= P × A

Suppose the gas is allowed to expand. If the displacement of piston is very small the
pressure of gas is taken as constant.

∆ W = F × d = (PA) × ∆ y = P∆ V.

∆ W = P (V2 –V1)

Appling first law of thermodynamic

∆ Q = ∆ u +∆ w

∆ Q =∆ u +P (V2 –V1) -1

The graphical representation of this process is shown in fig (3)

2. ISOCHORIC PROCESS: It is the process in which volume of the system is

remains constant.

To perform this process, consider a system consisting of a gas contained in a cylinder

filled with a piston as shown in fig (1). The piston is fixed so that volume of gas remains
constant. Suppose a certain amount of heat ∆ Q is supplied to the gas. Therefore gas is heated at
constant volume and pressure of the gas then increase from P1 to P2 as shown in figure (2). As
piston is fixed so no work is done ∆ W= 0

Applying first law of thermodynamic

∆ Q = ∆ u +∆ w
and ∆ Q = ∆ u +0

∆ Q =∆ u -2

This equation shows that all the heat supplied is used to increase the internal energy of
the gas.

3. ISOTHERMAL PROCESS: It is the process in which temperature of the gas is

remains constant. To perform this process the cylinder containing gas has per featly conducting
base and non-conducting walls and piston. The cylinder is placed on a heat reservoir as shown in
figure (1). Let gas be allowed to expand by decreasing load on the piston but heat flows into the
cylinder temperature of the gas remains constant, such expansion is called thermal expansion.
This expansion is represented graphically in fig (2) applying first thermodynamics.

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 ∆ Q=∆ u +∆ w

∆ Q = 0 +∆ w ( ∆ u –0)

OR
∆ Q=∆ w

This shows that heat supplied is equal to work done on the piston.

4. ADIABATIC PROCESS: It is a process in which no heat can enter or leave the

system. Thus for adiabatic process ∆ Qz0. Applying first law of thermodynamics to an adiabatic
process, we get

∆ Q =∆ u+ ∆ w

O = ∆ u +∆ w

OR
u =-∆ w

This equation shows that change in internal energy is equal to the work done by the
system. If ∆ w is negative then gas is compressed and hence internal energy of gas increases. If
∆ w is positive then gas expands and internal energy of gas decreases.

Adiabatic change is represented by equation

PVr = constant

CP
Where r = =1.4
Cv

Q. DEFINE Cp AND Cv ? PROVE THAT Cp- Cv =R?

ANS:- Consider ‘n’ moles of an ideal gas contained in a cylinder with a moveable frictionless
piston. First we suppose the piston is fixed and the goes is heated its volume remains to increase
the temperature of the gas.

Then

∆ Qv = nCv∆ T -1

(∆ Q = ∩ c∆ T)

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As piston is fixes, so no work is done i.e ∆ W =0: Applying first law of
thermodynamics, we get

∆ QV = ∆ u +0

OR ∆ u = ∆ QV

OR ∆ u = ∆ QV -2

Now let piston be free to move so that pressure of gas remains

Constant:

When gas is heated at constant pressure it is used to

i. Increase the temperature of gas
ii. Some work is done by the system
If ∆ Q is the heat flowing into the gas then

∆ QP = ∩ Cp ∆ T -3

Determination of ∆ w
  E
As ∆ w = F .d = Coso =Fd= P( Ad) ( P = )
A
Where A=Area of crossection of Piston.

∆ w = P∆ V -4

Applying general gas law

∆ V= ∩ R∆ T -5

By comparing equation (4) and (5), we get

∆ W = nR∆ T -6

Applying first law of Thermodynamics

∆ w = ∆ u =∆ w
‘∆ u’ for both the cases is same. Since the rise in temperature is same

OR ∆ QP =∆ u + ∆ w

Sub stating value of ∆ QP , ∆ u and ∆ w from (3) , (2) and

6, we get

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 ∩CP ∆ T =∩Cv∆ T +∩ R∆ T

OR

∩ ∆ T Cp = ∩∆ T( Cv +R )

OR

Cp = Cv +R

Therefore

Cp –Cv =R

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS : There are two statements of second

law of thermodynamics

1. KELVIN STATEMENT: According Kelvin statement. “It is impossible to constant

a heat engine which converts heat energy into mechanical work with out having a sink.”

2. CLAUSIUS STATEMENT: According to clans is statement “It is impossible to

cause heat to flow from cold body hot body without the expenditure of external power or
external energy.”

Q. PROVE THAT CLAUSIUS STATEMENT A KELVIN STATEMENT

ARE EQUIVALENT.

To prove that the two statements are equivalent we have to prove that, if either statement
is false the other statement must be false also. Suppose that Kelvin’s statement is false, and then
we could have a heat engine which takes heat from a source and convert it completely into work.
If we connect this perfect engine to on refrigerator, we can take heat from the hot body and
convert it completely to work. This work can be used to operate the refrigerator which convey
heat from the cold body to the hot body. The net result is a transfer of heat from a cold a hot
body without expenditure of work, which is contrary to clausius statement. Hence this shows that
two statements are equivalent.

Q. WHAT IS CARNOTE ENGINE? DISCUSS ITS WORKKING AND

DERIVE ITS `EFFICIENCY.

ANSWER:- CARNOTE ENGINE: According to second law of thermodynamics

the efficiency of a heat engine can not be 100%. Therefore sadi can not a french engineer in
1982o is, proposed an ideal heat engine. This engine is free from friction and heat looses.
Therefore it should have maximum efficiency. The working material of the carnet engine is an

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ideal gas. The gas is made of a perfect insulator and its both of a perfect conductor. Heat is
absorbed at a constant temperature TH and heat is given out to a sink maintained at constant at T L
(TH> TL).

Working: The carnote cycle consists of following four processes.

1. ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION: The engine is placed on HTR at a temperature

TH. The gas is allowed to expand by decreasing load on piston. Heat Q1 is absorbed so
temperature. Remains constant. It is represented y curve AB. Here work is done by the system.

2. ADIABATIC EXPANSION: In this process engine is placed on cold reservoir

(LTR) at temperature TL. Since no heat can enter or leave the system. This is adiabatic
expansion and is represented by cune BC. The work is done by the system.

3. ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSION: In this process engine is placed on cold

reservoir (LTR) at temperature TL. Gas is compressed, so heat Q2 is rejected a temperature TL.
This is called as isothermal compression, as temperature remains constant. It is represented by
curve CD called isothermal as shown in figure (1). Here work is done on the system.

4. ADIABATIC COMPRESSION: The cylinder is placed on heat insulator. Gas is

compressed until we reach initial State. As no heat can enter or leave the system so it is called as
adiabatic compression. It is represented curve CD; here work is done on the system.

EFFICIENCY OF CARNOT ENGINE: Efficiency is defined as the ratio of output to

the input.

Output
E = input

W Q − Q2
OR E= = 1 ( W = Q1 − Q2 )
Q1 Q1

Q2
E=1
Q1
It is found experimentally that

Q2 T
= L
Q1 TH

TL
∴ E = 1-
TH

and

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 TL
E% = (1- ) × 100
TH

Q. EXPLANIN ENTROPY OF A SYSTEM ENTROPY: In 1850 clauses

defined entropy as “It is a measure of degree of disorder of a system”.
Entropy is also defined as the unavailability of energy from a system.

Explanation: To explain the concept of entropy we consider the following example.

Suppose a jar containing salt and pepper arranged neatly in two different layers. Let the jar be
shaken. So that the slat and pepper are mixed together. Before shaking there was some order
between salt and pepper. This arrangement is lost on shaken. We can not bring back the
arrangement of the salt and people, which was in the beginning. It means disorder has increased.
We say that the entropy of the system has increased.

Change in entropy: The change in entropy of system is defined as the ratio of amount
of heat ‘∆ Q’ added or removed from the system and its absolute temperature “T” it is denoted
by
Thus
∆Q
∆ S= -1
T
The S.I unit of entropy is Joule K-1

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS IN TERM OF ENTROPY:

Second law of thermodynamics in terms of entropy is stated as if an isolated system
undergoes a change it will change in such away that its entropy either remains constant or tends
to be increase.”

HEAT DEATH OF UNIVERSE: Second law of thermodynamics reveals us that as time

goes on the universe will approach a state of maximum disorder. Matter will become a uniform
mixture; heat will have flowed from high temperature region to low temperature region until the
whole universe is at one temperature. No work can then be done. All the changes will case. This
is so called HEAT DEATH OF THE UNIVERSE.

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