As different as people can be, we are more alike than we realize.

Compare any two people and

you'll find that 99.9% of their DNA is the same.

HUMAN CELL
 There are basically two types of cells:
o Prokaryotic cell unicellular; lacks a membrane – bound nucleus, and
organelles.
o Eukaryotic cell multicellular; contains a membrane – bound nucleus, and
organelles.

 Structure:
Two primary building blocks include protein (about 60% of the membrane) and
lipid, or fat (about 40% of the membrane). The primary lipid is called phospholipid, and
molecules of phospholipid form a 'phospholipid bilayer' (two layers of phospholipid
molecules). This bilayer forms because the two 'ends' of phospholipid molecules have
very different characteristics: one end is polar (or hydrophilic) and one (the hydrocarbon
tails below) is non-polar (or hydrophobic).

 Functions:
o Supporting and retaining the cytoplasm
o Selective barrier
o Transport
o Communication via receptors
o Recognition

 Parts of the Cell:

Cytoplasm consists of a gelatinous solution and contains microtubules (which
serve as a cell's cytoskeleton) and organelles (“little organs”).

Cells also contain a nucleus within which is found DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) in
the form of chromosomes plus nucleoli (within which ribosomes are formed).

Organelles:
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Comes in 2 forms: smooth and rough; the surface of rough ER is coated
with ribosomes; the surface of smooth ER is not coated with ribosomes.
 Functions include: mechanical support, synthesis (especially proteins by
rough ER), and transport.
 Golgi complex
 Consists of a series of flattened sacs or cisternae.
 Functions include: synthesis (of substances likes phospholipids),
packaging of materials for transport (in vesicles), and production of
lysosomes.
 Lysosomes
 Membrane-enclosed spheres that contain powerful digestive enzymes.
  Functions include destruction of damaged cells and digestion of
phagocytosed materials.
 Mitochondria
 Have a double-membrane: outer membrane & highly convoluted inner
membrane.
 Inner membrane has folds or shelf-like structures called cristae that
contain elementary particles; these particles contain enzymes important
in ATP production.
 Primary function is production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
 Ribosomes
 Composed of ribosomal RNA and protein.
 May be dispersed randomly throughout the cytoplasm or attached to
surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
 Often linked together in chains called polyribosomes or polysomes.
 Primary function is to produce proteins.
 Centrioles
 Paired cylindrical structures located near the nucleus.
 Play an important role in cell division.
 Flagella and Cilia
 Hair-like projections from some human cells.
 Cilia are relatively short & numerous (e.g., those lining trachea)
 A flagellum is relatively long and there's typically just one (e.g., sperm)
 Villi
 Projections of cell membrane that serve to increase surface area of a
cell (which is important, for example, for cells that line the intestine)

Shortcut version of the parts of the cell and its functions

1. Cell Membrane - Protects the cell
2. Nucleolus (Nucleoli) - Makes ribosomes
3. Nuclear Membrane - Protects nucleus
4. Mitochondria - Makes energy/powerhouse
5. Golgi Bodies/Apparatus - Packages and secretes (gets rid of) waste
6. Endoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.) -Transports materials and sends messages to all parts
of the cell
7. Ribosome - Makes proteins
8. Vacuole - Stores food and water
9. Lysosome - Contains digestive enzymes
10. Centrioles -Helps the cell to divide
11. Nucleus - Control center
THE NUCLEUS
 the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meaning kernel
 It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA
molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form
chromosomes.

 the nucleus is therefore the control center of the cell

WITHIN THE NUCLEUS

A. Chromosomes

Chromosome - Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal
and plant cells. Each chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA). Passed from parents to offspring, DNA contains the specific instructions that make
each type of living creature unique.

The term chromosome comes from the Greek words for color (chroma) and body (soma).
Scientists gave this name to chromosomes because they are cell structures, or bodies, that are
strongly stained by some colorful dyes used in research

What do chromosomes do?

The unique structure of chromosomes keeps DNA tightly wrapped around spool-like proteins,
called histones. Without such packaging, DNA molecules would be too long to fit inside cells. For
example, if all of the DNA molecules in a single human cell were unwound from their histones
and placed end-to-end, they would stretch 6 feet.

For an organism to grow and function properly, cells must constantly divide to produce new cells
to replace old, worn-out cells. During cell division, it is essential that DNA remains intact and
evenly distributed among cells. Chromosomes are a key part of the process that ensures DNA is
accurately copied and distributed in the vast majority of cell divisions. Still, mistakes do occur on
rare occasions.

How many chromosomes do humans have?

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes.

In fact, each species of plants and animals has a set number of chromosomes. A fruit fly, for
example, has four pairs of chromosomes, while a rice plant has 12 and a dog, 39

B. GENES
Genes are often called the blueprint for life, because they tell each of your cells what to do and
when to do it: be a muscle, make bone, carry nerve signals, and so on. And how do genes
orchestrate all this? They make proteins. In fact, each gene is really just a recipe for a making a
certain protein.

PHYSICAL STRUCTURES
Size
Weight
Eye color
Hairs
SOME BEHAVIORS
Basis for some psychiatric disorders

C. DNA

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other
organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located
in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also
be found in the mitochondria (where it is calledmitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Human DNA consists of about 3 billion
bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people. The order, or
sequence, of these bases determines the information available for building and
maintaining an organism.

Components of DNA

DNA is a polymer. The monomer units of DNA are nucleotides, and the polymer is known as a
"polynucleotide." Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), a nitrogen
containing base attached to the sugar, and a phosphate group. There are four different types of
nucleotides found in DNA, differing only in the nitrogenous base. The four nucleotides are given
one letter abbreviations as shorthand for the four bases.

 A is for adenine
 G is for guanine

 C is for cytosine

 T is for thymine
Backbones of Human DNA (SUGARS)
Deoxyribose Sugar

The deoxyribose sugar of the DNA backbone has 5 carbons and 3 oxygens. The carbon atoms are
numbered 1', 2', 3', 4', and 5' to distinguish from the numbering of the atoms of the purine and
pyrmidine rings. The hydroxyl groups on the 5'- and 3'- carbons link to the phosphate groups to
form the DNA backbone. Deoxyribose lacks an hydroxyl group at the 2'-position when compared
to ribose, the sugar component of RNA.

Structure of deoxyribose

WHAT’S
BEING-
LINKED
BY
THESE

BACKBONE?
1. PURINES (with 2 bases)
Adenine (A)
Guanosine (G)

2. PYRIMIDINES (with 2 bases)

Thymine (T)
Cytosine (D)

Nucleotides

A nucleotide is a nucleoside with one or more phosphate groups covalently attached to the 3'-
and/or 5'-hydroxyl group(s).
Nucleosides

A nucleoside is one of the four DNA bases covalently attached to the C1' position of a sugar. The
sugar in deoxynucleosides is 2'-deoxyribose. The sugar in ribonucleosides is ribose. Nucleosides
differ from nucleotides in that they lack phosphate groups. The four different nucleosides of
DNA are deoxyadenosine (dA), deoxyguanosine (dG), deoxycytosine (dC), and (deoxy)thymidine
(dT, or T).

Structure of dA

In
dA
and
dG,

there is an "N-glycoside" bond between the sugar C1' and N9 of the purine.

DNA Double Helix

DNA is a normally double stranded macromolecule. Two polynucleotide chains, held together by
weak thermodynamic forces, form a DNA molecule.

Structure of
DNA Double
Helix

Features of
the

DNA Double
Helix
  Two DNA strands form a helical spiral, winding around a helix axis in a right-handed
spiral
 The two polynucleotide chains run in opposite directions

 The sugar-phosphate backbones of the two DNA strands wind around the helix axis like
the railing of a sprial staircase

 The bases of the individual nucleotides are on the inside of the helix, stacked on top of
each other like the steps of a spiral staircase.

Base Pairs

Within the DNA double helix, A forms 2 hydrogen bonds with T on the opposite strand, and G
forms 3 hyrdorgen bonds with C on the opposite strand.

HUMAN-DNA fast facts

SIXTY years ago today, on April 25, 1953, Francis Crick and James Watson published their
discovery of the double helix structure of the DNA molecule that is the basis of all living
structure.

1. Actually it was Rosalind Franklin’s discovery of the chemical structure of DNA that led to Crick
and Watson’s double helix model.

2. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) was first isolated by the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher in
1869.

3. DNA encodes a creature or plant’s genetic structure in terms of four chemical bases: adenine
(A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).

4. An animal’s entire code, comprising a long string of the letters A,G,C,T, is called a genome.

5. The human genome is about three billion letters long.

6. The completion of the project to map the entire human genome was announced on the 50th
anniversary of Crick and Watson’s original paper.

7. Any two people share about 99.9 per cent of their DNA. It’s the other 0.1 per cent that makes
us different from each other.

8. We share about 98.4 per cent of our DNA with a chimpanzee

9. …and about 70 per cent with a slug.

10. A fast typist, working eight hours a day, would take 50 years to type out the human genome.
DNA AND MEDICOLEGAL IMPORTANCE
DNA PROFILING
-DNA profiling (also called DNA testing, DNA typing, or genetic fingerprinting) is a
technique employed by forensic scientists to assist in the identification of individuals by
their respective DNA profiles. DNA profiles are encrypted sets of letters that reflect a
person's DNA makeup, which can also be used as the person's identifier. DNA profiling
should not be confused with full genome sequencing.[1] DNA profiling is used in, for
example, parental testing and criminal investigation.

Who invented it? The process of DNA fingerprinting was invented by Alec Jeffreys at the
University of Leicester in 1985.

He was knighted in 1994.

DNA profiling process

The process begins with a sample of an individual's DNA (typically called a "reference sample").
The most desirable method of collecting a reference sample is the use of a buccal swab, as this
reduces the possibility of contamination. When this is not available (e.g. because a court order
may be needed and not obtainable) other methods may need to be used to collect a sample of
blood, saliva,semen, or other appropriate fluid or tissue from personal items (e.g. toothbrush,
razor, etc.) or from stored samples (e.g. banked sperm or biopsy tissue). Samples obtained from
blood relatives (biological relative) can provide an indication of an individual's profile, as could
human remains that had been previously profiled.

A reference sample is then analyzed to create the individual's DNA profile using one of a number
of techniques, discussed below. The DNA profile is then compared against another sample to
determine whether there is a genetic match.

1. RFLP analysis

The first methods for finding out genetics used for DNA profiling involved RFLP analysis. DNA is
collected from cells, such as a blood sample, and cut into small pieces using a restriction enzyme
(a restriction digest). This generates thousands of DNA fragments of differing sizes as a
consequence of variations between DNA sequences of different individuals. The fragments are
then separated on the basis of size using gel electrophoresis.

The separated fragments are then transferred to a nitrocellulose or nylon filter; this procedure is
called a Southern blot. The DNA fragments within the blot are permanently fixed to the filter,
and the DNA strands are denatured. Radiolabeled probe molecules are then added that are
complementary to sequences in the genome that contain repeat sequences. These repeat
sequences tend to vary in length among different individuals and are called variable number
tandem repeat sequences or VNTRs. The probe molecules hybridize to DNA fragments
containing the repeat sequences and excess probe molecules are washed away. The blot is then
exposed to an X-ray film. Fragments of DNA that have bound the probe appear as dark bands on
the film
2. PCR analysis

Developed by Kary Mullis in 1983, a process was reported by which specific portions of the
sample DNA can be amplified almost indefinitely (Saiki et al. 1985, 1988). This has revolutionized
the whole field of DNA study. The process, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), mimics the
biological process of DNA replication, but confines it to specific DNA sequences of interest. With
the invention of the PCR technique, DNA profiling took huge strides forward in both
discriminating power and the ability to recover information from very small (or degraded)
starting samples.

PCR greatly amplifies the amounts of a specific region of DNA. In the PCR process, the DNA
sample is denatured into the separate individual polynucleotide strands through heating.

3. STR analysis

The system of DNA profiling used today is based on PCR and uses short tandem repeats (STR).
This method uses highly polymorphic regions that have short repeated sequences of DNA (the
most common is 4 bases repeated, but there are other lengths in use, including 3 and 5 bases).
Because unrelated people almost certainly have different numbers of repeat units, STRs can be
used to discriminate between unrelated individuals. These STR loci (locations on a chromosome)
are targeted with sequence-specific primers and amplified using PCR. The DNA fragments that
result are then separated and detected using electrophoresis. There are two common methods
of separation and detection, capillary electrophoresis (CE) and gel electrophoresis.
Stages of DNA Profiling

Stage 1:

Cells are broken

down to release
DNA. If only a
small amount of
DNA is available it
can be amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Step 2:

The DNA is cut into fragments using restriction enzymes. Each restriction enzyme cuts DNA at a
specific base sequence.

Stage 3:

Fragments are separated on the basis of size using a process called gel electrophoresis.

DNA fragments are injected into wells and an electric current is applied along the gel.

Stage 4:

The pattern of fragment distribution is then analysed.

Uses of DNA Profiling

DNA profiling is used to solve crimes and medical problems

1. Crime

a) Forensic science is the use of scientific knowledge in legal situations.

b) The DNA profile of each individual is highly specific.

c) The chances of two people having exactly the same DNA profile is 30,000 million to 1
(except for identical twins).

The pattern of the DNA profile is then compared with those of the victim and the suspect.

If the profile matches the suspect it provides strong evidence that the suspect was present
at the crime scene (NB:it does not prove they committed the crime).

If the profile doesn’t match the suspect then that suspect may be eliminated from the
enquiry.

2. Solving Medical Problems

DNA profiles can be used to determine whether a particular person is the parent of a child.

A childs paternity (father) and maternity(mother) can be determined.

This information can be used in

Paternity suits

Inheritance cases

Immigration cases
 http://www.biotechnologyonline.gov.au/popups/int_dnaprofiling.html

SOURCES OF DNA
(Turman, 2001)

Saliva -Earwax

Sweat -Skin tissue

Bone -Mucus

Root and shaft of hair -Urine

Vaginal and -Rectal cells

DNA IN THE PHILIPPINE JUSTICE SYSTEM

RULE ON DNA EVIDENCE 

Section. 1.    Scope. -  This Rule shall apply whenever DNA evidence, as
defined in Section 3 hereof, is offered, used, or proposed to be offered or
used as evidence in all criminal and civil actions as well as special
proceedings.  chan robles virtual law library 

Sec. 2. Application of other Rules on Evidence. - In all matters not

specifically covered by this Rule, the Rules of Court and other pertinent
provisions of law on evidence shall apply.    chanroblesvirtualawlibrary

Sec. 3. Definition of Terms.

(a) "Biological sample" means any organic material originating from a

person's body, even if found in inanimate objects, that is susceptible to DNA
testing. This includes blood, saliva and other body fluids, tissues, hairs and
bones;     

(b) "DNA" means deoxyribonucleic acid, which is the chain of molecules

found in every nucleated cell of the body. The totality of an individual's DNA
is unique for the individual, except identical twins; 
     
(c) "DNA evidence" constitutes the totality of the DNA profiles, results and
other genetic information directly generated from DNA testing of biological
samples;     
  
(d) "DNA profile" means genetic information derived from DNA testing of a
biological sample obtained from a person, which biological sample is clearly
identifiable as originating from that person;  chan robles virtual law library 

(e) "DNA testing" means verified and credible scientific methods which

include the extraction of DNA from biological samples, the generation of
DNA profiles and the comparison of the information obtained from the DNA
testing of biological samples for the purpose of determining, with
reasonable certainty, whether or not the DNA obtained from two or more
distinct biological samples originates from the same person (direct
identification) or if the biological samples originate from related persons
(kinship analysis); and 

(f)  "Probability of Parentage" means the numerical estimate for the

likelihood of parentage of a putative parent compared with the probability
of a random match of two unrelated individuals in a given
population.    chan robles virtual law library 

Sec. 4. Application for DNA Testing Order. - The appropriate court may, at
any time, either motu proprio or on application of any person who has a
legal interest in the matter in litigation, order a DNA testing. Such order
shall issue after due hearing and notice to the parties upon a showing of the
following:    chanroblesvirtualawlibrary

(a)  A biological sample exists that is relevant to the case; 

    
(b)  The biological sample:cralaw

(i) was not previously subjected to the type of DNA testing now requested;
or 
(ii) was previously subjected to DNA testing, but the results may require
confirmation for good reasons; 

(c)  The DNA testing uses a scientifically valid technique;     

(d)  The DNA testing has the scientific potential to produce new information
that is relevant to the proper resolution of the case; and  chan robles virtual
law library 

(e)  The existence of other factors, if any, which the court may consider as
potentially affecting the accuracy or integrity of the DNA testing. 
 
This Rule shall not preclude a DNA testing, without need of a prior court
order, at the behest of any party, including law enforcement agencies,
before a suit or proceeding is commenced.

Sec. 5. DNA Testing Order. - If the court finds that the requirements in
Section 4 hereof have been complied with, the court shall -
 

(a)  Order, where appropriate, that biological samples be taken from any
person or crime scene evidence; 

(b)  Impose reasonable conditions on DNA testing designed to protect the

integrity of the biological sample, the testing process and the reliability of
the test results, including the condition that the DNA test results shall be
simultaneously disclosed to parties involved in the case; and 

(c)  If the biological sample taken is of such an amount that prevents the
conduct of confirmatory testing by the other or the adverse party and where
additional biological samples of the same kind can no longer be obtained,
issue an order requiring all parties to the case or proceedings to witness the
DNA testing to be conducted. 

            
Sec. 6.  Post-conviction DNA Testing. - Post-conviction DNA testing may be
available, without need of prior court order, to the prosecution or any
person convicted by final and executory judgment provided that (a) a
biological sample exists, (b) such sample is relevant to the case, and (c) the
testing would probably result in the reversal or modification of the
judgment of conviction. chan robles virtual law library 

Sec. 7.  Assessment of probative value of DNA evidence. -  In assessing the

probative value of the DNA evidence presented, the court shall consider the
following:cralaw

(a)  The chain of custody, including how the biological samples were
collected, how they were handled, and the possibility of contamination of
the samples;       

(b)  The DNA testing methodology, including the procedure followed in

analyzing the samples, the advantages and disadvantages of the procedure,
and compliance with the scientifically valid standards in conducting the
tests; 
           
(c)  The forensic DNA laboratory, including accreditation by any reputable
standards-setting institution and the qualification of the analyst who
conducted the tests. If the laboratory is not accredited, the relevant
experience of the laboratory in forensic casework and credibility shall be
properly established; and             
(d) The reliability of the testing result, as hereinafter provided.     

Sec. 8.  Reliability of DNA Testing Methodology. - In evaluating whether the

DNA testing methodology is reliable, the court shall consider the
following: chan robles virtual law library 

(a)  The falsifiability of the principles or methods used, that is, whether the
theory or technique can be and has been tested; 

(b)  The subjection to peer review and publication of the principles or

methods;     

(c)  The general acceptance of the principles or methods by the relevant

scientific community; 
(d)  The existence and maintenance of standards and controls to ensure the
correctness of data generated;     

(e)  The existence of an appropriate reference population database; and 

(f)  The general degree of confidence attributed to mathematical

calculations used in comparing DNA profiles and the significance and
limitation of statistical calculations used in comparing DNA profiles. chan
robles virtual law library     

Sec. 9. Evaluation of DNA Testing Results. - In evaluating the results of DNA

testing, the court shall consider the following: chan robles virtual law
library 

(a) The evaluation of the weight of matching DNA evidence or the relevance
of mismatching DNA evidence; 

(b)  The results of the DNA testing in the light of the totality of the other
evidence presented in the case; and that chan robles virtual law library 

(c)  DNA results that exclude the putative parent from paternity shall be
conclusive proof of non-paternity. If the value of the Probability of Paternity
is less than 99.9%, the results of the DNA testing shall be considered as
corroborative evidence. If the value of the Probability of Paternity is 99.9%
or higher, there shall be a disputable presumption of paternity. 

Sec. 10. Post-conviction DNA Testing. Remedy if the Results Are Favorable
to the Convict. -  The convict or the prosecution may file a petition for a writ
of habeas corpus in the court of origin if the results of the post-conviction
DNA testing are favorable to the convict.

In case the court, after due hearing, finds the petition to be meritorious, it
shall reverse or modify the judgment of conviction and order the release of
the convict, unless continued detention is justified for a lawful cause.

A similar petition may be filed either in the Court of Appeals or the Supreme
Court, or with any member of said courts, which may conduct a hearing
thereon or remand the petition to the court of origin and issue the
appropriate orders.

Sec. 11.  Confidentiality. - DNA profiles and all results or other information
obtained from DNA testing shall be confidential. Except upon order of the
court, a DNA profile and all results or other information obtained from DNA
testing shall only be released to any of the following, under such terms and
conditions as may be set forth by the court:  chan robles virtual law library 

(a)  Person from whom the sample was taken; 

(b)  Lawyers representing parties in the case or action where the DNA
evidence is offered and presented or sought to be offered and presented; 

(c)  Lawyers of private complainants in a criminal action; 

(d)  Duly authorized law enforcement agencies; and 

(e)  Other persons as determined by the court. 

Whoever discloses, utilizes or publishes in any form any information

concerning a DNA profile without the proper court order shall be liable for
indirect contempt of the court wherein such DNA evidence was offered,
presented or sought to be offered and presented.        
 
Where the person from whom the biological sample was taken files a
written verified request to the court that allowed the DNA testing for the
disclosure of the DNA profile of the person and all results or other
information obtained from the DNA testing, the same may be disclosed to
the persons named in the written verified request.
  

Sec. 12. Preservation of DNA Evidence. -  The trial court shall preserve the
DNA evidence in its totality, including all biological samples, DNA profiles
and results or other genetic information obtained from DNA testing. For this
purpose, the court may order the appropriate government agency to
preserve the DNA evidence as follows:  chan robles virtual law library 

(a) In criminal cases: 

i.  for not less than the period of time that any person is under trial for an
offense; or 
ii.  in case the accused is serving sentence, until such time as the accused
has served his sentence;  and         
  
(b)    In all other cases, until such time as the decision in the case where the
DNA evidence was introduced has become final and executory.  chan robles
virtual law library 

The court may allow the physical destruction of a biological sample before
the expiration of the periods set forth above, provided that:  chan robles
virtual law library 

(a)  A court order to that effect has been secured; or 

(b)  The person from whom the DNA sample was obtained has consented in
writing to the disposal of the DNA evidence. chan robles virtual law library 

Sec. 13. Applicability to Pending Cases. - Except as provided in Sections 6

and 10 hereof, this Rule shall apply to cases pending at the time of its
effectivity. chan robles virtual law library 

Sec. 14. Effectivity. -  This Rule shall take effect on October 15, 2007,
following publication in a newspaper of general circulation.

Paternity Testing-DNA Testing

DNA paternity testing refers to the clinical testing procedure of the DNA samples of a man and a
child, taken from their bodily fluid or tissue, in order to determine whether that particular man
is the biological father of the child or not.

The concept

The DNA in a human being is known as the unique genetic fingerprint, which is present in each
and every cell in that human’s body. Every person has a genetic code of 46 chromosomes which
is a combined mix of 2 sets of 23 chromosomes each passed on by his / her biological parents. In
simple words, when a baby is conceived, each parent passes on half of their genes, i.e. 23
chromosomes to the baby. Hence collecting a DNA sample from the baby and the alleged father
and testing them thereof can either prove or disprove the biological fatherhood of that person
in relation to that particular child. 

 Sample Collection

Most of the companies use the simple buccal swabs for collecting the samples. This is a simple
and painless paternity testing process, which uses the logic that DNA is present in every cell of
the body. The swab needs to be just swiped inside the tester’s mouth, to collect the saliva. 

 Process in the Laboratory

DNA samples, which include cheek cell containing swabs of both father and child, are essential
for the laboratory testing. There are even self testing kits available which allow you to collect the
sample privately in your home. Samples from mother can also be tested, if she is enthusiastic
and capable of providing one. The tests from father-child or father-mother-child will both be
irrefutably same. The samples must reach the lab without any contamination or tampering. 

 Procedure of DNA testing

The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) method is mostly used for DNA paternity testing. In this
procedure the Legal DNA test is first segregated from the rest of the cell matter and precise
locations (loci) of the DNA sample are then studied. Due to the existence of two sets of
chromosomes, each locus value of the child has two readings, one matching with the birth
mother and another with the birth father. If Mother= (1,2) and Father=(3,4), then child can be
(1,3)(1,4)(2,3) or (2,4) 

 Calculation of Paternity Index

For each match the paternity index is established. This is the measure of the frequency in which
that particular loci match occurs in a particular race and the probability of that subject being the
biological parent based upon that locus. Clearly one locus is insufficient to provide conclusive
results. So, companies that perform multiple loci tests are preferable, along with the 13 CODIS
loci.

 Probability Percentage of the Paternity Index

Each locus has a unique paternity index. After getting all the loci matches, they are combined to
get a percentage of probability for the subject's paternity. For instance, if one locus of the test
subject does not match the child's, then the index value for that locus would be zero (0). In a
non-match, further sample analysis may be needed. 1-2 non-matches may need further testing
of up to 25 pointer study. More than three non-matches will be concluded to be negative,
meaning that the tested person is not the biological parent of the child.

DNA Test Philippines – Paternity testing in the Philippines

The Supreme Court’s Rule on DNA Evidence A.M. No. 06-11-5-SC became effective on October
15, 2007. The Court used the Rule in deciding the case of “Estate Of Rogelio G. Ong versus Minor
Joanne Rodjin Diaz, Represented by Her Mother and Guardian, Jinky C. Diaz”, G.R. No. 171713,
promulgated on December 17, 2007. The Court observed:

“For too long, illegitimate children have been marginalized by fathers who choose to deny their
existence. The growing sophistication of DNA testing technology finally provides a much needed
equalizer for such ostracized and abandoned progeny. We have long believed in the merits of
DNA testing and have repeatedly expressed as much in the past. This case comes at a perfect
time when DNA testing has finally evolved into a dependable and authoritative form of evidence
gathering. We therefore take this opportunity to forcefully reiterate our stand that DNA testing
is a valid means of determining paternity.” Agustin v. Court of Appeals…More at DNA testing to
prove legitimacy or illegitimacy of children; Supreme …

DNA Paternity tests are often required for legal purposes, by the court, or even by embassies.
It's usually best to contract for DNA Testing yourself, so you don't find yourself in a bad position
like the couple in the video below, being charged $700 USD to have a paternity test completed
for the United States Embassy. Legal DNA/Paternity tests are “much” cheaper if you have it
done yourself!

http://dnatestph.com/paternity.html ( list of prices )