Sociology: Perspective, Theory, and Method

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Detailed Outline

What is sociology? is defined as the systematic study of human society. At the heart
of sociology is a distinctive point of view called "the sociological perspective."

i. Sociologists study groups of varying sizes

1. Dyads- Two person interactions
2. Small groups- Three or more (family, neighborhood
group, a classroom, work group, street gang)
3. Larger groups- Sports or scouting clubs, neighborhood
associations & local religious congregations
4. Nations – Ethnic groups, national organizations or
institutions, including economic, educational, religious,
health, & political systems.
5. Globalization- The process by which the entire world is
becoming a single interdependent entity.

The assumptions underlying sociology

1. People are social by nature. - Humans seek contact with other humans,
interact with each other, and influence and are influenced by the behaviors
of one another. Humans need groups to survive. Socialization.
2. People live much of their lives belonging to social groups. - It is in social
groups that we interact, learn to share goals and to cooperate, develop
identities, obtain power, and have conflicts. Our individual beliefs and
behaviors, our experiences, our observations, and the problems we face are
derived from connections to our social groups.
3. Interaction between the individual and the group is a two-way process in
which each influences the other. - Individuals can influence the shape and
direction of groups; groups provide the rules and the expected behaviors for
individuals.
4. Recurrent social patterns, ordered behavior, shared expectations, and
common understandings among people characterize groups. - A degree of
continuity and recurrent behavior is present in human interactions, whether
in small groups, large organizations, or society.

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 5. The process of conflict and change are natural and inevitable features of
groups and societies. - Rapid change often or can lead to conflict within a
society – between traditional & new ideas & between groups that have
vested interests in particular ways of doing things.

Name some other social sciences- what do those people do?

The social sciences- A comparison

b. Cultural anthropologists, - Cultural anthropology is the study of

living peoples, their beliefs, practices, values, ideas, technologies,
economies and more. Through a variety of theoretical approaches and
research methods, anthropologists today study the cultures of people
in any part of the world-- including those of industrial and "post-
industrial" societies.

c. Psychologists study - Focus on attributes, motivations, & behaviors

of individuals.
d. Political scientists -
e. Economists -
f. Sociologists - Tends to focus on group patterns.

Which of the social sciences strikes you as closest to sociology?

Cultural Anthropology
Most distinct? Psychology
Why?It deals with individuals
What classes have you taken that you feel may be helpful for you in
this course? History and Political Science
How?History studies social changes and its causes and effects.
Political Science studies how groups and organizations are structured
and how they influence eachother.
Sociology vs. Common Sense Exercise-

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 Common sense - Refers to ideas that are so completely take for
granted that they have never been seriously questioned and seem to
be sensible to any reasonable person.
Sociologists - Assume human behavior can be studied scientifically;
they use scientific methods to test the accuracy of commonsense
beliefs and ideas about human behavior and the social world.

The Sociological Perspective - Holds that we can best understand our personal
experiences & problems by examining their broader social context – by looking at
the big picture.

Benefits of the Sociological Perspective

Seeing the General in the Particular Peter Berger has suggested sociologists look
for general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals. While not
erasing our uniqueness as individuals, sociology studies the social forces that
impinge on our lives in so many unseen, yet significant ways.
Seeing the Strange in the Familiar Sociologist Peter Berger suggests that "things
are not always what they seem." Sociology pushes us to question the assumptions
we are making about society, and reveals aspects of our social life that we typically
would not claim to be "obvious" facts.
Individuality in Social Context Research by Emile Durkheim on suicide shows
how impersonal forces affect personal behavior. Durkheim showed that certain
social categories in Western Europe during the latter part of the nineteenth century
had higher suicide rates than others. The degree of social integration experienced
by people was found to be a significant factor influencing patterns in suicide rates.

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 B. Applied Sociology – is concerned with pragmatic ways to improve the
society, sometimes with major reorganization of the society and
sometimes with modest policy proposals that will make modern
organizations operate more smoothly. (sociological practice) refers to
“any use (often client-centered) of the sociological perspective and/or
its tools in the understanding of, intervention in, and / or enhancement
of, human social life”.
II. Studying the social world: Levels of analysis

a. There are three primary levels of analysis:

i. Micro-level analysis –Face to face interactions in dyads or small groups.
A focus on small-group interaction.(families, local corporations, to
societies)

ii. Meso-level analysis- Analysis of intermediate-size social units. Involves

looking at units smaller than the nation but larger than the local
community or even the region. (economy of a country the national
education system, or political system within a country, ethnic groups,
nationwide corporations, etc.)

iii. Macro-level analysis- Entre nations, global forces, international social

trends, national politics & war)

The Origins of Sociology- on own

Sociological Theory
A theory is a statement or explanation of how two or more facts about the
social world are related to each other. They try to explain social interactions,
behaviors, and problems; a good theory should allow the scientist to make
predictions about the social world. Different theories are useful at each level
of analysis in the social world; which theory a sociologist uses to study the
world depends on the level of analysis to be studied, from the micro-level
individual in a small group to macro –level societies in the global system.

A. The structural-functional approach is – Assumes that all parts

of the social structure (including groups, organizations, and

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 institutions), the culture (values & beliefs), and social processes
(for example, social change or socialization- learning to be a
member of society) work together to mae the whole society run
smoothly & harmoniously.
Key figures in the development of this approach include Auguste Comte,
Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, and Talcott Parsons. Robert Merton
introduced three concepts related to social function:

1. Manifest functions - are the planned outcomes of sociological

organization or institutions.

2. Latent functions – unplanned or unintended consequences.

3. Social dysfunctions- actions that undermine the stability or

equilibrium of society.

Critical Review: Difficult to test. Does not explain social changes in

society such as conflict and revolution. Assumes that conflict is
harmful. Feminists criticize functionalists support of the status quo

B. The social conflict approach – Conflict and the potential for

conflict underlie all social relations. Social change is desirable,
particularly changes that bring about a degree of social equality.
The existing social order reflects powerful people imposing their
values and beliefs upon the weak.

Key figures in this tradition include Karl Marx and W.E.B. Du Bois.

Critical Review: Focus is heavy on the macro and downplays the

micro. Difficult to test especially when researching history. Not
effective in explaining cohesion and cooperation. Downplays altruism
and cooperation.

C. The symbolic-interaction approach – Is concerned with how

people create shared meanings regarding symbols and events
and then interact on the basis of those meanings. Assumes that
groups form around interacting individuals. Through these
interaction people learn to share common understandings and to

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 learn what to expect from others. Make use of symbols,
language, verbal and nonverbal, to interpret interactions with
others.

Key figures in the development of this approach include Max Weber,

George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman, George Homans, and Peter Blau.

1. Critical Review: Neglects the macro level structures that affect

human behavior. It is difficult to study ambiguous ideas such as the
development of the self or how the mind works. Symbols sometimes have
multiple meanings.

D. Rational choice theory/exchange theory- Assumes that people take action

based on rational decisions. From this perspective, people are expected to act in
ways that maximize their rewards and minimize their costs. Where the balance lies
determines our behavior.

1. Critiques of the rational choice perspective – Rational

choice theorists give little attention to macro-level analysis
and internal mental processes. Charitable, unselfish, or
altruistic behavior is not easily explained by this view.
Humans do not always behave in ways that maximize their
own selve interest (latent).

V. Three Ways to Do Sociology

A. Scientific Sociology

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 Science – System of logic based on direct systematic observation.
Empirical evidence.

Assumptions of Science
b. The scientific approach is based on the following core assumptions:
i. There is a real physical and social world that can be studied
scientifically
ii. There is order in the world resulting from causes and effects. There
are cause and effect relationships.
iii. Empirical tests are the way to gain knowledge of the world
1. Empirical knowledge- Knowledge gained through the five
senses. Can be tested with the senses.
iv. Scientific knowledge must be based on measurable phenomena
v. Science is rooted in objectivity. Try to be objective as possible.

1. Scientific evidence- facts and information that are confirmed

through systematic testing using the five senses and
sometimes enhanced with research tools.
2. Objectivity – using methods that limit the impact of the
researcher’s personal opinions or biases on the study being
planned.

2. Concepts, Variables, and Measurement

concept— Researchers identify key concepts (variables), or
ideas, in the hypothesis. These concepts can be measured by
collecting facts or data.
Operationalizing- The process of determining how to measure
concepts is called operationalizing variables.
Variables – are concepts (ideas) that can vary in frequency of
occurrence from one, time , place, or person to another.

Independent variable- Is hypothesized to cause the change.

Happens before dependent variable.
Dependent variable- Is caused by the independent variable.
Happens after the Independent variable.

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 Measurement

3. Reliability and validity

Reliability = Is measuring tool consistent?
Validity = Are you measuring what you intend to measure.
Operationalization = Spelling out exactly what you want to
measure.

4. Correlation and Cause

Correlation – relationship between two variables.

Cause and effect— cause must happen before the effect to

support correlation.

Spurious relationships- occur when there is no causal

relationship between the independent variables, but they vary
together, often due to a third variable working on both of them.

To be sure of a real cause-and-effect relationship, we must show

that: The independent variable must always precede the dependent
variable. Controls – are used to eliminate all spurious variables.

c. Two types of reasoning are used in conducting research

i. Deductive reasoning- Begins with broad general ideas, or theories,
of human social behavior. From these ideas more specific patterns
are identified or “deduced” using logical reasoning.

1. Hypotheses- These educated guesses – which still do not

have data to support them – are called hypotheses.

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 ii. Inductive reasoning- Begin with specific facts (data) or evidence
and tries to find or develop a theory – a more generalized set of
concepts – to explain the facts.

B. Interpretative Sociology – Try to figure out what things mean to

people. Try to figure out what meanings people attach to the world.
Interpretative Sociology asks why. House work and chores.

C. Critical Sociology – Try to make things more equal. Make things

better. Must be based on evidence.

VI. Research Ethics

The American Sociological Association–the professional organization of
U.S. sociologists–has established formal guidelines for conducting research.
Sociologists must strive to be technically competent and fair-minded in their
work; ensure the safety of subjects taking part in a research project; include
in their published findings any sources of financial support; and observe the
global dimensions to research ethics.

IRB (institutional review board) Do the benefits outweigh the risks. How do
we minimize risks.

Ethical issues in social research

d. How will research findings be used? Could they hurt individuals,
communities, or nations? In whose interest is the research carried out?
e. How can the researcher protect subject confidentiality? Is the risk to
subjects worth the anticipated benefits?
f. Do subjects provide informed consent? What does informed consent
mean? How much should the researcher reveal to the subject about the
study?
g. Will there be any harm to subjects?
h. How much privacy violation is acceptable? How much disclosure of
confidential information is acceptable?

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 i. How can results be disseminated to the public to be useful for public
policy and everyday life
j. Human subjects review boards at most universities and research
organizations help protect subjects

A. Gender and Research – college age men are not representative of the
public. Who is doing the survey? Middle aged women.

VII. Research Methods

A research method is the method in which data is collected, includes
experimentation & investigation.

A. Testing a Hypothesis: The Experiment

B. Asking Questions: The Survey

C. In the Field: Participant Observation , or dethatched observation

D. Using Available Data: Existing Sources

Triangulation- combines two or more methods of collecting data to increase

accuracy.

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Putting it all Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Research (READ BUT WON’T
BE TESTED ON)
The following ten questions will guide you through a research project
in sociology:
1. What is your topic?
2. What have others already learned?
3. What, exactly, are your questions?
4. What will you need to carry out research?
5. Are there ethical concerns?
6. What method will you use?
7. How will you record the data?
8. What does the data tell you?
9. What are your conclusions?
10. How can you share what you’ve learned?

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 METHODOLOGICA CRITICISMS
PARADIG L FRAMEWORK / OF PARADIGM
M KEY THEORISTS KEY IDEAS BY OTHERS VIEW ON DIVORCE VIEW ON CRIME

Macro, Large social World is mostly stable

No it is not.
groups. What & orderly, things are Population, decrease police
Structural- Not trying to Provides jobs, population
purpose does it serve the way they are costs, wedding industry,
Functional change bad control, shape laws
for society? because they serve a divorce lawyers
things
purpose.

World unstable,
No it is not Is not
Macro What social change is inevitable. Lawyers v. lawyers Jobs
about physical Men V. Women over children.
Social groups are struggling Scarce recourses. Legislators v. Citizens funding
fighting. It is a Lawyers v. Clients over $.
Conflict over which scarce People In power want Criminals v. victims safety
power struggle. Childless v. with kids & time.
resource? to keep power. They Wealthy v. poor sentencing
To poitical.
change the rules.

Micro + Micro. What

There is a reality but
are the symbols & Symbol; not wearing ring. Not
we each a view it together. Moving out. Stop sharing
what do they mean? Hard to study. Jail – consequences
differently based on lives. Behaviors & relationships
What passed Some shared change. Abusive.; know about others
Victim – purp
Symbolic past experiences. We meanings.
experiences have – happier care about them – parents
Interaction use symbols to
shaped your present or siblings experience.
understand the world.
view of reality?

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 METHODOLOGICA CRITICISMS
PARADIG L FRAMEWORK / OF PARADIGM
M KEY THEORISTS KEY IDEAS BY OTHERS VIEW ON DIVORCE VIEW ON CRIME

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 -Don’t know /
Utilitarianism don’t have all Pros- new stuff, adventure,
Rational Micro & Messo What
(maximize gain – options Pro’s & Con’s fame.
Choice are the pro’s & cons?
minimize loss) -problem of Cons – Jail, death, lose family,
altruism

3 types of functions.
1. Manifest – intended
2. Latent - unintended
3. Dysfunctions – unintended

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History of Sociology
Three ways to do Sociology
Scientific
Assumptions

Sociology: Core Concepts

Introduction To sociology
Culture
Socialization
Social interaction
Groups
Social Stratification
Race and Ethnicity
Family
Religion
The Economy
Social Change

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