MODULE 7-9 (QUARTER 2)

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
(strategies in various speech
communication)
CONTENT AND PERFORMANCE STANDARD
The learners will be able to:
1. recognize that communicative competence requires understanding of speech context, speech style,
speech act and communicative strategy; and
2. demonstrate effective use of communicative strategy in a variety of speech situations.
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
The learners will be able to:
1. identify the various types of speech context;
2. exhibit appropriate verbal and non-verbal behavior in a given speech context;
3. distinguish types of speech style;
4. identify social situations in which each speech style is appropriate to use;
5. observe the appropriate language forms in using a particular speech style;
6. respond appropriately and effectively;
7. engage in a communicative situation using acceptable, polite and meaningful communicative strategies

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE- refers to a language user’s grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology’

and the like as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.

I. TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXT

Effective communication takes place when there is successful transmission of information from one
person to another. There are various types of speech context, basically we can distinguish between these
types as Intrapersonal, Interpersonal (Dyadic and Small Group), and Public forms of communication.
A. INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Intrapersonal communication is the level of communication where a person does ‘’self-taking’’, this
involves self-thoughts, feelings, and perceptions about oneself through personal life experiences.
Characteristics:
 It is silent talking which every person is doing
 It is communication within oneself
 The sender and receiver of the message is the same ( self)
 There is no interruption or feedback
 Examples: thinking, remembering, dreaming, deciding
B. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
This is the level of communication involving two or more persons engaging in the communication
process. When there are only two persons involved in the exchanging of messages, this is called dyadic
communication. However, if there is a small group of people interacting to achieve a common goal, this is
called small group interaction.

Characteristics:
 It is interactive, face-to-face, or need not to be face to face communication.
 It is done between sender and receiver
 It is a two-way communication between two or more people.
 It is continuous.
 It is a quick exchange of information.

  It is irreversible.
 Tt is transactional.
 It is affected by noise
 It involves verbal and nonverbal cues.
 It involves feedback.
 It involves two or more people.

Interpersonal Communication maybe categorized according to the number of participants:

1. Dyad
This is a form of communication involving two persons. This is also a kind of interpersonal communication
between two people. Dyad involves an alternate speaker and a listener; both exchanging ideas alternately in a
pleasant manner. Dyadic communication may be characterized either as simple; where two people engage in
aimless talks; or intimate talk between close friends; or as a formal act like an interview.
Other Characteristics of Dyad:
 There are two persons involved in communication
 The source may become the receiver
 The receiver may become the source
 It is a dynamic communication process
 Feedbacks are shared between the source and the receiver
2. Small Group
An effective communicator is a person who knows how to communicate interpersonally in any oral
interchange. Being a part of a group indicates a person’s active life. The main purpose of group interaction is
mainly for sharing of information, finding facts, and decision making.
Examples of small group communication activities are Panel Discussion, Meeting, Round Table Discussion,
Participatory Format, and Face-to-Face Format. Refer to the discussion below.
a. Panel Discussion
It is the most popular group discussion. It is an informal but organized conversation in front of a larger
audience. A panel discussion involves three to six participants, carrying on a conversation on a timely and
relevant topic before an audience. The following are suggestions for a good panel discussion:
 Talk to each other for the audience
 Avoid discussing between leader and discussant only.
 Be alert in breaking silence
 Avoid monopolizing the discussion
 Address each other by name.
 Make sure that conversation is spontaneous, and not memorized.
 Proper facial expressions should be shown
 Do not give long speech
 State clearly the topic you are discussing about.
b. Meeting
Meeting is a communication format where superiors and subordinates hold an authoritative
relationship within the organization, or offices.
c. Round Table Discussion
Round table discussion is a small group discussion where the communicators sit around a circular
table. Each person is given equal right to participate. The circle represents free expression from the different
participants, and the circular table enhances harmony in smooth group discussion.
d. Participatory Format
Participatory format is a small group discussion format where all present members exchange ideas
about an important issue or problem.
e. Face-to-Face Format
Face to face format is a form of communication where participants discuss face-to-face against each
other. The participant and the discussant clearly interact during the discussion.
f. Lecture- is a single discourse or speech given by an expert before an audience. It is a fifty to sixty minute
presentation where the audience is given a chance to participate after the lecture. It is a discussion type with
purpose to instruct, to inform, or to impart and provide the audience a clear idea about the topic to be
communicated.
g. Forum
Forum like debate is another discussion meeting. It is a participation of the entire group after a planned
program of discussion or lecture has been held and the balance of the time is turned over to the groups for
comments, questions, and exchange of ideas. It is a public place for open discussion or a medium of open
discussion or voicing ideas, such as a newspaper, radio, or television program.
h. Symposium
A meeting or a conference for a discussion of a topic. It is a series of individual presentations which address
different aspects as a single topic, and usually followed by questions from the audience.
i.Debate
It is an exchange of thoughts or arguments by two opposing teams. The goal for each opposing teams is to
persuade or convince the audience that their ideas or right or more acceptable that the other.
C. PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
In this level of communication, one person (who is the speaker) is engaged in transmitting messages to the
audience. This includes activities like seminars, workshops, and symposium. There is limited feedback in this
level since this is done only by a speaker who does all the talking.
Characteristics:
 Only a single person is the source of information that is received by a big number of audiences.
 There is no mutual feedback between the source and the receiver.
 Communication is focused only on the speaker.
 It is audience-centered. As a speaker, you should focus on your audience and analyse what they need.
How to analyse the composition of your audience:
a. Know the social composition of the audience
b. Know the audience attitude toward the speech.
c. Know the audience attitude toward the speech purpose.
d. Know the audience attitude toward the speaker.

D. MASS COMMUNICATION
It is any of the above human verbal interactions carried out with the aid of mass media technology. Mass
media used to mean only radio and television, which reached more people with the use of their technical
systems. With the advent of the internet and the worldwide web, Mass Communication now includes Social
Media, which allow for the use of technology by everyone, not just journalists, broadcasters, and technical
crew. Social media cover videos that go viral on the Internet as well as webcasts/podcasts which reach
millions, more than radio or TV ever could. In fact, radio and TV have joined Social Media by putting up their
own websites to communicate to a larger audience.

E. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
It refers to the interaction of members along the links in an organizational structure. There are two
variations of Organizational Communication. Formal Organizational communication uses the proper channels
graphically illustrated by an organizational chart. Memos, announcements, and reports are passed along to
the members of the organization following the chain of the command. An example is a memo on salary
increase, which is issued by the company president, sent along to the vice president, then is passed on to the
managers, and, finally, handed on to the supervisors before reaching the employees. The Informal version
bypass the links, skips forward or backwards, or even goes sideways just to achieve the same goal: for
example, to pass on a memo, announcement, or a report. The memo on salary increase will probably reach
the employees faster than the formal announcement because the secretary who typed the memo told
another secretary who told the supervisor who shared it with co-workers. This is not to say that one is more
important than the other, or that one is bad, the other not. Both types of Organizational Communication are
necessary for the organization to survive.

F. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
It is the exchange of concepts, traditions, values, and practices between and among people of different
nationalities and ways of life. It goes beyond showcasing folk dances, local songs, and native delicacies. To
make the exchange more meaningful, there should be a deeper understanding and awareness of what makes
various nationalities different and unique, but also similar and familiar. For example, a roundtable discussion
to exchange views about how we relate with our families can show the differences and similarities in Korean
and Philippine cultures. A lecture on the Chinese way of doing business might enlighten Filipino businessmen.
Chatting with a friend from Abu Dhabi might bring out the difficulties of a Catholic Filipino worker in a Muslim
country.

II. TYPES OF SPEECH STYLES

 A style is a set of linguistic variants that a person uses and that have specific social meanings. It is the
choice of words that a person can apply in different situations. These five speech styles are: Intimate, Casual,
Consultative, formal and frozen.
1. INTIMATE
Intimate style uses private language commonly shared with family and close friends; it shows close or
intimate relationships among people communicating; and it does not include public information.
Two features of Intimate Style:
1. Extraction- the speaker extracts a minimum pattern from some conceivable casual sentence.
2. Jargon- this is defined as any professional, technical, or specialized language; this is associated with special
activity or group. This is also the secret language between people with same profession or orientation and
could not be understood by those who are not in the same group.

2. CASUAL
This style is used among friends and co-workers when an informal atmosphere is appropriated and desired
such as outside the classroom where students have a chat.
Additional Characteristics:
 There is the absence of the background information.
 There is little reliance on listener participation.
Two devices of Casual Style:
1. Ellipsis (omission) - unstressed words in a sentence can be omitted particularly at the beginning; the
sentence structure of casual style becomes incomplete.
Example: ‘’ I would like to thank you.’’ (Consultative)
‘’ Thanks’’ (Casual)
2. Slang- this is defined as very informal vocabulary or phraseology that would be out of place in a formal
setting, and is often confined to a specific context. This is also non-standard word which is known and
used by certain groups like teenager groups.
Example: (young people) - girl (formal language)
-chick (slang language)
3. CONSULTATIVE
This style is used in semi-formal communication situation; like negotiating with strangers or colleagues,
small group discussion, regular conversations in schools, companies, or organizations. Examples of this style
are conversations transpiring between teacher-student, doctor-patient, and expert-apprentice.
Additional Characteristics:
 It is informative and supplies background information
 In includes listener’s participation
 It has complete grammar and clear pronunciation.
4. FORMAL
This style is used in formal situation, there is the least amount of shared background, and the
communication style is largely one way with little or no feedback from the audience. Examples of this style are
used in seminars, symposia, where there is a speaker in front of an audience.
Additional Characteristics:
 It has personal detachment and absence of participation of listeners.
 It has cohesion of form and organization
 It gives clear intention to inform
 It uses explicit pronunciation and grammar
5. FROZEN
This has the characteristics of poetry and liturgy. This style is intended to be remembered and used in
every formal setting such as in a palace, church ritual, speech for state ceremony, and some other occasions.
This style involves large group of people, but they are not permitted to give questions to the speaker.

III. TYPES OF SPEECH ACT

 In linguistics, a speech act is defined as an utterance that has performative function in language and
communication. This is also defined as the speaker’s intention and the effect it has on the listeners. The
proponents of Speech Act Theory were Oxford philosopher J.L Austin who first introduced it, and was further
developed by American philosopher J.R Searle.

Capone (2009) states in Concise Encyclopedia of Pragmatics that the full import of a speech is
determined by the interaction between the literal speech act and the context of use. Furthermore, Kent Bach
elucidated in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy that almost any speech act is really the performance of
several acts at once, distinguished by the different aspects of the speaker’s intention: there is the act of saying
something what one does in saying it, such as requesting or promising, and how one is trying to affect one’s
audience.

“ A speaker utter sentences with a particular meaning (locutionary act), and with particular force
(illocutionary act), in order to achieve a certain effect on the hearer or listener”. (John Austin;1962).

There are three levels of speech acts as exemplified by J.L Austin and J.R Searle; these are Locutionary,
illocutionary, and perlocutionary.
1. Locutionary Act
According to J.L Austin, a Locutionary act is the act of making meaningful utterance, this is also known as
an utterance act; in other words this is the act of ‘’saying something’’ in the full normal sense. In addition, J.R
Searle defines Locutionary act as propositional act, which is the act of expressing a proposition. This is also a
referring expression like noun phrase, verb phrase, verb phrase, or a predicting expression. A propositional act
can either be expressed directly or via implications.
Examples of Locutionary acts:
 Asking or answering a question
 Giving some information, assurance, or warning
 Announcing a verdict or an intention
 Pronouncing a sentence
 Making an appointment, an appeal, or a criticism
 Making identification, or giving a description.
Sample propositional sentence:
 ‘’You should stop your vices’’. (the referring expression is You, and the predicting expression is stop
your vices)
 ‘’I warn you to stop your vices’’. (its propositional content predicts a future act-to stop the vices of the
hearer)
 ‘’I warn you that your vices are dangerous’’. ( this is implied because the propositional content does
not predict the future act of the hearer)
2. Illocutionary Act
This is an act using a sentence to express an attitude with certain function or force. J.L Austin describes
illocutionary act by ‘’saying something’’, we do something’’. Davis (1994) also states that an illocutionary act
can be made explicit by the use of a performative verb formula; additionally Boisvert (2014) says that
sentences can be used in illocutionary acts to warn, congratulate, complain, predict, command, apologize,
inquire, explain, describe, request, bet, and adjourn.
Examples:
 ‘’Leave!’’ (doing something; as someone issues an order to someone)
 ‘’I nominate John Cruz as class president.’’ (the explicit and performative verb in this sentence is
nominate)
 ‘’I resolve to do better in my exams.’’ (the explicit and performative verb in this sentence is resolve)
 ‘’Congratulations! You passed the college entrance exam.’’ (the sentence uses congratulatory remarks)
Classification of Illocutionary/Perlocutionary Act According to J.R Searle:
A. Assertives / Representatives
These are statements
These are speech acts that commit a speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition.
Example: reciting a creed, affirming, believing, concluding, denying,reporting, etc.
B. Directives
These are speech acts that are to cause the hearer to take particular action like request, commands, or
advices.
 Examples: ‘’Please keep quiet, the session is going on.’’ (Giving request)
‘’ Kindly proceed to the next window for your payment’’. (Giving command)
‘’You are advised to consult Dr. Tan for a second opinion.’’ (Giving advice)
C. Commissives
These are speech acts that commit a speaker to some future action like promises and oaths.
Examples: ‘’I promise to tell the truth, nothing but the whole truth, so help me God’’.

D. Declaratives

These are speech acts that change the reality in accordance with the proposition of the declaration like
baptism, pronouncing someone as guilty, or pronouncing couple as husband and wife.
Examples: ‘’I baptized you in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.’’
‘’ I sentence you with reclusion perpetua’’
‘’ I now pronounce you as husband and wife.’’

E. Expressives
These are speech acts that express the speaker’s attitudes and emotions towards the proposition like
congratulations, excuses, or thanks, welcomes, or sympathizes, etc.
Examples: ‘’Congratulations, you are moving to the next level!’’
‘’ I’m sorry; I can’t attend your party tonight.’’
‘’ Well thanks! That was a good compliment.’’
3. Perlocutionary Act
This is an act which consists in the beginning about of certain consequences for the audience to whom
the utterance is directed. According to Martinich (1984) a perlocutionary act is performed by saying
something, and not in saying something. Persuading, angering, inciting, comforting, and inspiring are often
perlocutionary acts, in contrast with Locutionary and illocutionary acts which are governed by conventions;
perlocutionary is not conventional but natural acts (Austin [1995], p.121).

IV. TYPES OF COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGY

According to Brown (1994) communicative strategy is actually the process of interlingual transfer and
the context of learning as a learner tries to get a message through to a hearer or reader.
1. NOMINATION
When engaging in a conversation we normally propose or suggest a topic or issue that we want to talk
about. When we do this we are nominating a topic or subject for discussion. The following are several
expressions that will help you do this:
 Why don’t we talk about ___________________?
 Let’s talk/discuss __________________. What do you think?
 How about talking or discussing ______________?
 How do you feel about talking/discussing _______________?
 Fancy talking/discussing ______________?
2. RESTRICTION
It refers to limiting the topic or subject in conversation. This sometimes happens when the person
wants to focus on a certain aspect of the issue under deliberation or when time to discuss it is very
short. Here are some phrases that you can use:
 Let us focus on ____________?
 Limit your talk on ____________?
 Why not concentrate on __________?
 Let us not discuss the ___________?
 Please do not talk __________?
3. TURN-TAKING
In conversation, turn-taking refers to conventions in which participants allow appropriate
opportunities for others to talk or the manner in which an orderly conversation normally takes place. A
turn is the time when a speaker is talking and turn-taking is the skill of knowing when to start and finish
a turn in a conversation. For example, one way that a speaker signals a finished turns is to drop the
pitch or volume of his voice at the end of an utterance. In the classroom, there are different ways that
a speaker achieves turn-taking and they vary in different cultures. Areas that can be considered in turn-
 taking include pronunciation, e.g. intonation, grammatical structures, utterances such as ‘ah’, ‘mm’ and
‘you know’, body language and gestures.
According to Claudia Pesce (Busyteacher.org.), there are seven strategies in turn-taking:
1. Speak, then ask
2. Use conjunctions
3. Teach Phrases for Agreeing and Disagreeing
4. Teach Phrases for Asking for and Giving Opinion
5. Teach Fillers for Pauses
6. Avoid Interruptions
7. Consider Fluency over Accuracy
4. TOPIC CONTROL
Topic control is one communication strategy that we have to master if we want to be a good
communicator. It means regulating or manipulating the topic of conversation and how long we want
the other person may talk. When we want to elicit specific information from a conversation, we need
to be in control of what is said and when.
1. Handle the small talk. Small talks can lead to big talks. Always remember to start at the beginning.

Some Useful Expressions to Control the Conversation

 Yes, but…
 You know, I’m not sure about that. However, what I can tell you is…
 The real question here is ‘’___________’’?
 The heart of the matter is ‘’_________’’?
 It would be a good idea if we talk __________ than _____________.
5. TOPIC SHIFTING
This refers to changing the subject in a conversation because the persons involved in the conversation
do not find the current topic interesting. It means that in a conversation they do not only talk about one topic
from the beginning until the end, but they shift or change from one topic to another. This topic may be related
to the previous topic or it may be a new one. Topic shift is done without explicitly announcing the change of
topic or reaching some kind of an agreement that such a change is appropriate or will be made. It is done to
make the communication going and interesting. Several expressions in changing the topic in conversation are:
 By the way,…
 Incidentally,…
 To follow up…
 Coming back to…
 Talking about _______ is better.
6. REPAIR
In conversation, repair means the correction by the speaker of a misunderstood utterance, either
through self-initiated repair, or corrected by others. This is the process by which a speaker recognizes a speech
error and repeats what has been said with some sort of correction. Conversational repair helps to sustain
interaction by allowing persons in conversation to handle mutual problems that arise as they communicate.
Some expressions or phrases you can use are:
 I mean…
 What I mean is that…
 Rather, ____________
7. TERMINATION
This last communication strategy refers to ending the conversation. If some people find it difficult to
begin a conversation and others find problems to keep it going, it can be more challenging to close a
conversation so you can either move to another topic or move away to talk with someone else.
Terminating a conversation can be interpreted by other people as bad manners. You will even wonder
if interrupting or walking away from somebody might give an idea that you are rude. Here are some
expressions and forms that you can use in closing a conversation.
Pre-closing
 It’s been nice talking to you
 It’s been great talking with you
 I really enjoyed meeting you
 It was nice meeting you, Mr. Brown.
 I’m sorry, but I have to leave now.
Follow up
 I’ll give you a call
 I’ll send you an e-mail
 I’ll have my secretary schedule an appointment
 Could you send me a brochure/some more information?
 How can I reach/contact you?
Closing
 I look forward to seeing you again
 We’ll see you on Friday
 See you next week
 Let me give you my business card
 Here’ s my e-mail/office number

TYPES OF SPEECHES
CONTENT AND PERFORMANCE STANDARD
The learners will be able to:
1. realize the rigors of crafting one’s speech; and
2. proficiently deliver various speeches using the principles of effective speech delivery
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
The learners will be able to:
1. distinguish types of speeches;
2. use principles of effective speech delivery in different situations;
3. use principles of effective speech writing focusing on audience profile, logical organization, duration,
word choice, grammatical correctness; and
4. use principles of effective speech delivery focusing on articulation, modulation, stage presence, facial
expressions, gestures and movements, rapport with the audience.

I. TYPES OF SPEECHES ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

As a social being, man is able to create a variety of social and public functions that call for different
types of speech making. Aquino (1999) stressed that the style required for different occasions varies with the
formality and degree of intimacy among the members of the gathering. The speaker can adapt this
approach to his subject and to his particular audience if he knows the basic types of speeches which are:
Informative or exploratory Speech, Persuasive Speech, Argumentative speech, and Entertainment Speech, and
inspirational speech.
A. Informative or exploratory Speech
According to Osborn and Osborn (1988) an informative speech gives, rather than asks or takes and the
demands on the audience are low. Listeners are asked to attend, to comprehend, to understand, to
assimilate, but not to change their beliefs and behaviours. An informative speech provides knowledge for
listeners to use however they may wish. It does not suggest how an audience should each such knowledge,
nor does it advocate programs of action.
The purpose of this speech is to impart knowledge, to clarify information, and to secure understanding.
This provides information to the audience. Even if the audience does have some general knowledge of your
topic, an informative speech will give them new knowledge or more in depth information on that topic. The
informative speech does not advocate one idea over another, but remains nonpartisan.
An informative speech can be organized in a topical, chronological or spatial pattern. Remember as you
create your speech; include the principles of what make a good speech, involve your audience by using a clear
thesis statement, giving clear supporting material, and concluding the speech with impact.
Six Designs of Informative Speeches
a. Spatial Design
This describes places and objects using geographic directions transporting audience into an imaginary
journey.
 b. Categorical Design
This classifies subjects through categories in order to organize meaningful information.
c. Comparison and contrast
This is a comparative design enhancing the audience’s understanding through citing similarities and
differences between subjects.
d. Sequential Design
This design illustrates chronological order of developing ideas; providing essential steps and process to be
followed.
e. Historical Design
This is similar to sequential design where it follows a definite time perspective starting with the present
and tracing back to the origin of the concepts.
f. Causation Design
This design gives explanation on the causes and effects of what happens and why things happen with
respect to existing conditions.
Structuring the Informative Speech
Like most speeches, an informative speech is composed of introduction, body, and conclusion.
Introduction
This includes creating curiosity and needs for the listener, giving motivational appeal on the topic at
hand.
Body
This makes use of topical pattern to explain and describe the different aspects of the topic presented.
Conclusion
This provides a concise summary of the topic, and an appeal to the audience on how ideas can be
applied in appropriate situation.
General Types of Informative Speeches:
a. Speeches about objects, people
These types of informative speeches are about things in our sensory and physical world- things you can see
and hear and smell and feel and taste. A speech on a country, an important (to you) person, a plant, bug,
buildings would all be a speech about objects.
b. Speeches about events
These types of speeches are about anything that has or will happen. It can be something like Mardi Gras or
the current volcanoes in Hawaii, the recent ferry wreck in Haiti, or even current disasters throughout the
world.
c. Speeches about processes
These types of speeches take the audience through a series of events which lead them to a specific result
or product. How to create holiday ornaments, how to take dents out of fenders and how to tune a guitar
are all speeches about processes.
d. Speech about concepts
These types of speeches are dealing with theories, ideas, beliefs and other abstract principles. Explaining
democracy, music theory or Martin Luther King, Jr.’s principle of peaceful revolution would fit into his cat

B. Persuasive Speech
Gronbeck (1994) explained that persuasive speaking is the process of producing oral messages that
increase personal commitment; modify beliefs, attitudes, or values. The general purpose of persuasion is to
change or reinforce attitudes of behaviors. The speaker of writer who persuades makes a very different
demand on an audience.
This is a kind of speech that moves the audience to action. The speaker should demolish the audience’s
objection, and should prove the acceptability of his or argument and position. The speaker should stimulate or
impress them with the desirability of his or her plan in order that the listeners will be receptive for action.

Types of Persuasive Speech

a. Speeches of Reinforcement
These speeches seek to increase adherence to or rejection of a particular set of values. This calls for the
original beliefs and values that caused people to join and contribute to the task needing to be done.
b. Speeches of Modification
These speeches seek specific psychological changes in one’s belief state, attitude towards an object, or
basic values. These aim at modifying the views of listeners through changing their beliefs, changing their
attitudes, and changing their values.
 c. Speeches of Actuation
These speeches seek a set of specific actions from its audience; making a set of needs for the audience,
and demonstrating that a certain cause of action will satisfy these needs.
C. Argumentative Speech
An argumentative speech aims to convert the audience to agree on the speaker’s point or side. Primarily, an
argumentative speech center on controversial issues and the speaker presents evidence to support his claim
that his side is the truth. In this type of speech, the speaker’s objective is to arrive at the truth of the matter
after the presentation of a logical series of reasons or evidence.

An argumentative speech may use any of the three major types of appeal:
1. Appeal to Reason (Logos)
This is rhetorical strategy used to lead the audience in making a conclusion based on facts presented by
the speaker. For example, if you would like to convince your audience to stop smoking, you would be
presenting facts or proofs that smoking can make people sick and kill them.
2. Appeal to Emotions (Pathos)
This strategy is used to persuade the audience by targeting their feelings. Let us say, you would like to
convince your audience to stop smoking as in the example given in appeal to reason, telling them a
story of how a father and his child got sick because of smoking and both developing lung disease – the
father from first hand smoking, and the child, being exposed to the smoke.

3. Appeal to Character (Ethos)

Ethos is an appeal to ethics. This type of appeal is used to persuade the audience based on the
character of the persuader or the speaker, not of the audience. For example, the speaker who is to
convince his audience of the dangers of smoking is a doctor. Knowing that he is in the medical
profession will affect how the audience will take his word compared to a speaker who can also speak
on the harmful effects of smoking to man, but who is not really an expert in the field of medicine and is
just basing the facts he is presenting from his research.

D. The Entertainment Speech

This is a kind of speech that transmits a feeling of pleasure and goodwill to the audience. The speaker
in this kind of speech is gracious, genial, good-natured, relaxed, and demonstrates to the listeners that he or
she is enjoying the pleasant job of speaking to them.
Speeches to entertain usually work within the cultural framework of a particular group of society. Such
speeches may be ‘’merely funny’’ as in comic monologues, but most are serious on their force or demand on
audience (Gronbeck, et.al, 1994.)
Sequence for Entertainment Speeches (Gronbeck, et.al, 1994)
1. Relate a story or anecdote, present an illustration, or quote an appropriate passage.
2. State the essential idea or point of view implied by your opening remarks.
3. Follow with series of additional stories, anecdotes, or illustrations that amplify or illuminate your central
idea, arrange those supporting materials so they are thematically or tonally coherent.
4. Close with a restatement of the central point you have developed, as in step 1, you can use another
quotation or one final story that clinches and epitomizes your speech as a whole.
5. Inspirational Speech
This speech aims to motivate or inspire an audience, to help them be positive and optimistic about
things. Although this type of speech may also give information or persuade or entertain the audience, its
optimum goal is to inspire people- to make people desire to achieve their goals in life, to uplift their
faith, or to maximize their potentials. Examples are pep talks, valedictory address, orations, a priest’s
homily.
F. INSPIRATIONAL SPEECH
This speech aims to motivate or inspire an audience, to help them to be positive and
optimistic about things. Although, this speech gives information or persuade or
entertain the audience, its optimum goal is to inspire people, to make an audience
desire to achieve their goals in life, uplift their faith, or to maximize their potentials.
Example are; pep talks, valedictory speeches, orations, priest’s homily.
II. SPEECHES ACCORDING TO DELIVERY
 The most important aspect of communication is dissemination of information, in like manner, a
speech, could not be considered as a speech when it is not correctly transmitted by the speaker and properly
received by the listener.
A. Reading from a Manuscript
Read speech is a manner of speaking where a written speech is read and delivered word for word. This is a
preferred mode of presentation when accurate wording is imperative and when time constraints are severe.
Examples of manuscript presentations are: Official Proclamations, Legal Announcements, Professional Papers,
and Mass Media Presentation.
Advantages:
a. Requires at least as much skill as making a memorized speech.
b. Requires a lesser time for practicing the delivery of the speech.
c. Requires no familiarization with ideas and thoughts in the speech
Disadvantages:
a. Speakers may just tend to read and will not communicate at all.
b. Speakers may be so engrossed with the manuscript and may tend to disregard their audience.
c. Speakers may tend to lose eye contact and mental contact with their listeners.
Suggestions on how to Read from a Manuscript:
a. Write your message in an oral style:
b. Use bold and big font size in writing the final draft of your manuscript.
c. Familiarize the ideas and wordings of your manuscript.
d. Practice reading your manuscript and maintain good eye contact with audience.
e. Record your speech and listen to how you read; correct yourself for some mispronunciations and over
phrasing of words.
f. Continue practicing until you have mastered the conversational style of presenting the manuscript.
B. Memorized Speech
This is a written speech which is mastered and delivered entirely from memory.
This kind of speech requires the speaker a considerable memory skill in order not to forget his or her
presentation.
Advantages:
a. Enhances the speaker’s memory as he or she is forced to memorize the speech.
b. Requires speaker’s expertise in oral communication.
c. Develops speaker’s general platform behavior.
Disadvantages:
a. Speakers may tend to forget if memory is not good.
b. Speakers may sometimes present a soliloquy instead of a public speech.
c. Discourages speaker to react with the feedback of the audience.
d. Spontaneous and natural presentation may not be practiced.
Suggestions on Delivering a Memorized Speech
a. Write the speech in advance before the actual delivery.
b. Memorize the speech fully to confidently communicate with the audience.
c. Develop mastery on enunciation, gestures, and proper presentation.
d. Focus on communicating with the audience and not on your speech.
C. Impromptu Speech
This is a speech where the speaker develops his or her ideas, thoughts, and language at the moment of
delivery. Impromptu speaking situations may occur in offices, meetings, and college classes. Relying on one’s
previous knowledge and prior experiences are important factors in delivering this speech.
Advantages:
a. There is spontaneity and naturalness in the speech presentation.
b. Exhibits speaker’s wit and good oral communication skills.
c. Develops speaker’s mental alertness.
Disadvantages:
a. May show speaker’s disorganized and erroneous language during delivery.
b. Some important points or ideas may not be presented due to lack of time and preparation.
Suggestions on Delivering an Impromptu Speech:
a. Be mentally alert and rely on your previous knowledge and experiences
b. With few minutes to prepare, jot down the main ideas into a short outline.
c. Stick to the main points by presenting your ideas chronologically.
 d. Make your presentation short and summarize your conclusion.
D. Extemporaneous Speech
This is a speech where the topics or ideas are prepared beforehand; however the speaker will compose
his or her views and language only at the moment of delivery. This is also a speech that is practiced but not
written or memorized.
Advantages:
a. Shows speaker’s spontaneity and naturalness in speaking.
b. Allows speaker to monitor and adjust to the audience’s response.
c. Develops speaker’s careful organization of ideas and choice of words.
Disadvantages:
a. Lacks the preciseness and careful presentation of the speaker’s thoughts and language.
b. Speaker’s main points may not be presented well.
Suggestions on Delivering an Extemporaneous Speech:
a. Write a brief outline to serve as guide in the presentation of your main points.
b. Use a more spontaneous and natural language.
c. Adjust to your audience and adjust to their responses.
d. Monitor the responses of your audience and make necessary adjustments on the flow of your thoughts
right on the spot.
e. Organize your thoughts carefully and choose your words appropriately.
f. Be natural and conversational as you create a direct contact with your audience.

A. PRINCIPLES OF SPEECH WRITING

1. Choosing the Topic
In his book entitled ‘’Speechwriting-Lessons from the Masters’’, B.P.S. Gatbonton Jr. explains that every
speech incorporates and integrates the speaker’s ideas, feelings, values, beliefs or philosophy on a subject of
importance. The soul that animates the speech is the message on the chosen subject or theme. The message
is the medium itself. Its core is the main thesis or the central point of speech. Everything in the speech must
converge on and support or advance the thesis.
How can a speaker incorporate and integrate the topic of the speech? What is a good topic and how can a
speaker choose a good topic? A good topic is exemplified by the ability of the speaker to give an impact to the
audience because the topic interests them, and it is personally significant to the speaker as well.
Choosing the topic is dependent upon certain occasions. There are times that you are invited to speak on a
specific topic, or in someone instances you are not given a topic at all. When confronted with a speech
assignment, Gronbeck suggested the following guidelines to help you select a topic appropriate to a speaking
situation, and how to narrow down such selected topic.
Selecting the Subject:
1. Select a subject about which you already know something and can find out more.
Examine certain topics that you already know about and research on them to add more to your
knowledge.
2. Select a subject that interests you.
When the topic interests the speaker, likewise it will be reflected in his enthusiasm in presenting the
speech.
3. Select a subject that will interest your audience.
The audience plays a significant role in the speech situation, for them to internalize your speech, look for
topics that will tickle their interest.
4. Select a subject appropriate to the occasion.
Look for topics that would fit to any given speech situation.
Narrowing down the Subject:
1. Narrow your subject so that you can discuss adequately in the time allotted for the speech. Identify the
time given to your speech so you can adjust its length.
2. Narrow your subject to meet the specific expectations of your audience. Stick to the specific
expectations of your audience and don’t deviate from it.
3. Gauge your subjects so that it is neither above nor below the comprehension level of the audience.
4. Focus your attention on the basis and elemental principles of your topic and adjust it according to the
levels of your varied audience.
5. Analyzing the Audience
Knowing and analyzing the audience is an integral part of the whole preparation of your speech. As a
speaker, you have the responsibility to disseminate the information correctly to your audience. The listeners
may compose of different people with varied beliefs, expectations, experiences, and background. Knowing
your audience before the speech presentation will help you do the necessary adjustments and provide to
them the appropriate information. Some considerations to be taken into account are the probable attitude,
interests, and reactions of the audience towards your topic. Examine the most common traits and interest of
your audience as presented by Flores and Lopez below;
Know the Common Traits and Interest of your Audience
(Flores and Lopez, 2008, p.263)
1. Age- children, adolescents, young adults, middle-aged, old people, mixed.
2. Sex- all men, mostly men, all women, mostly women, approximately equal.
3. Race- Filipinos, foreigners, mixed ethnic group (this may create language problem)
4. Family status- single, married, parents, children
5. Economic Status- wealthy, middle class, poor, mixed
6. Educational Status- elementary, high school, college, post graduate, mixed
7. Community- farm, small town, small city, big city, mixed
8. Occupation- big business, small business, professional, trade, housewives, students, retired, etc.
9. Religion- Protestants, Catholics, Jews, other denominations, free thinkers, regular members, occasional
attendants, seldom or never attended, mixed.
10. Politics- the same political party, different political parties
11. Memberships, fraternities or sororities, labor unions, club
6. Sourcing the Information
As a speaker, it is important that you will provide all the needed information that will be included in your
speech. As you go through digging, you will come across necessary information that will be relevant to your
presentation, make sure to include all these information to achieve your purpose. Additionally, it is also vital
that you will get access to all the available sources or materials that will supplement your information.
With the advent of technology, finding information is not a problem anymore. Materials coming from the
internet, the non-print, and printed media are good sources. However, there are also instances that first hand
or new information is needed to substantiate a speech; in such cases, the interview can also be used to
generate information. Each of these sources of information is discussed below.

1. The Internet
The internet is a useful source of information. Everyone can have access to this available technology.
Langan (2000) stated that the internet is a dramatic proof of the computer revolution that has occurred in our
lives. It is a giant network that connects computers at tens of thousands of educational, scientific,
government, and commercial agencies around the world. Within the Internet is the World Wide Web, a global
information system which got its name because of countless individual websites containing links to other sites,
2. The Printed Media
The written and the printed word is one of the most common sources of information. Examples of this can
be readily found in the library. Examples of these books are encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, and almanacs.
3. The Non-printed media
The non-print media can be an effective way for communicator knows how to adjust to different
communication situation. According to Aquino (1999) the two common speech situations are: Radio
Broadcasting and Television Broadcasting.
4. Interview
5. Recording Information
6. Outlining and Organizing

Format of a Speech Outline

(Ang, 2009, p.101-102)
A. The Introduction- This should capture the attention of the audience, there are six methods of beginning
speech.
1. Announce the subject directly in the opening paragraph
2. Tell a human interest story, an illustration, or an anecdote
3. Begin with a striking statement that will arouse the curiosity of the audience.
4. Ask a thought provoking question
5. State facts which are important to the subject matter of your speech.
6. Use a powerful quotation.
B. The Body of the Speech- This is essentially a discussion of the main issue. You may use the basic patterns
of development: narration, exposition, argumentation, or description. Because the audience cannot replay
 your speech while you are saying it, and only hear it rather than read it, it is vital that your speech should
be clear, correct, and appealing.
This part of the speech can be divided into several parts. Just remember the five principles for the writing of
the body of your speech:
1. Mastery of your topic
2. Be sure of facts, figures, and illustrations
3. If you are introducing a proposition, starts with the subject matter with which there is agreement.
4. Explain your position, don’t argue.
5. The points to be discussed should be briefly and clearly stated at the beginning of the body.
C. The Conclusion- the ending of the speech is generally remembered the longest by your audience,
therefore you must re-emphasize your message at the closing part of your speech for them to remember
what you have delivered.
Tips on how to end your speech:
1. Outline the major points mentioned in the body of speech
2. Use a striking quotation
3. End your speech in a dramatic climax
4. Leave a statement of hope, optimism, and encouragement.
5. Dare the audience to take some form of action or adopt a specific point of view
6. Tell an acceptable joke or appropriate comment
D. PRINCIPLES OF SPEECH DELIVERY
1. Articulation
Articulation is related with pronunciation, which is the actual and correct way of saying words; this
involves proper stressing and accenting of syllables. Michael Osborn and Susan Osborn defined articulation as
the way you produce individual speech sounds. There are speakers who have trouble enunciating certain
words; problems with articulation can hamper effective communication especially in cases where the audience
cannot understand the speaker. According to Ang (2009), to be an effective, competent, and elegant speaker
of English, it is essential to have an understanding of how speech sounds of English are produced. This
knowledge will enable a person to understand why there is a big difference as far as foreign accents are
concerned. In addition, it will also help correct one’s pronunciation problems and produce sounds correctly.
2. Modulation
Voice modulation is important in speech delivery, as a speaker you need to develop good vocal
characteristics. According to Jaffee (1998) there are several studies stating that audience typically associate
vocal characteristics with personality traits.
For Examples:
 Loud and soft speakers- are people who are self-sufficient, resourceful, and dynamic.
 Loud and slow speakers- are those who are aggressive, competitive, and confident.
 Soft and fast speakers- are competitive, enthusiastic, and benevolent.
One of the pitfalls of good communication is when the speaker fails to project and modulate his or her
voice that it becomes inaudible to understand. Follow the guidelines suggested by C.Flores and E.Lopez in
adjusting the volume and projection of your voice:
 Carry your tone or throw out your voice as far as the speech and the situation will require.
 Practice proper breath control
 Identify your listeners and acknowledge your audience.
 Develop a very positive attitude toward speaking to an audience.
 Cultivate a sense of participation with your listeners.
 Always direct your thoughts towards the last row of listeners ensuring that message will reach them.
3. Stage Presence
Erving Goffman compares our self-presentation to a dramatic stage performance in which we attempt
to create and maintain impressions within our listeners as if we are on stage, using a combination of props and
personal mannerisms to accomplish this.
In like manner, stage presence is defined as your capability and ability as a speaker to command and
connect powerfully and realistically with impressive manner and style to your audience. The success of your
speech and presentation is dependent on your ability to engage your audience as you inspire, convince, or
influence them. Follow the tips on effective delivery suggested by Ang (2009) to improve your stage presence:
Some Tips for Effective Delivery According to Ang (2009, p.102)
 Direct eye contact with your audience to show interest with them.
 Facial expression should be on the ‘’happy’’ side.
 Hands should be relaxed.
  Check your visual posture.
 Have a positive attitude.
 Speak with an audible voice, good diction, pronunciation, and enunciation.
 Deliver your speech with aplomb. (complete composure and or self-assurance)
4. Facial Expressions/Gestures/Movements
According to Jaffee (1998) your manner, or the way you speak, move, and look at the audience is an
area of nonverbal communication over which you have a great deal of control. Body movements range from
large emotions such as posture, walking, and gesturing, to every small movements such as raising an eyebrow.
Functions of Gestures
Paul Ekman and W.V Friesen classified the functions of gestures into, emblems, illustrators, and adaptors.
Refer to the discussion below:
 Emblems- these are gestures that stands for words or ideas.
Examples: -Holding up a hand to ask audience to be quiet.
-putting forefinger to your lips in a ‘’sh-h-h-h’’ gesture to keep quiet.
 Illustrators- these are gestures that simply illustrate or add emphasis to your words, these serve the
following functions:
- accent words and phrases
-show spatial relationships
-point to objects
 Adoptors- these are used to alert your audience of your nervousness, because they are evidence of stress
or fear.
Examples: -Self-adoptors: fidgeting with hair, licking your lips, scratching face, rubbing hands.
-Object adoptors: touching things like jingling keys or coins in the pocket, pulling necklace or
earrings, twisting a ring, or tapping a pen.
-Alter-adoptors: Folding arms across chest during intense questioning.
Ang (2009) identified some taboos in speech delivery, take note of each this and improve your facial
expressions.

Taboos in Speech Delivery (Ang, 2009, p.103)

1. Making faces, staring at the ceiling, floor, or wall.
2. Giggling
3. Wetting lips frequently
4. Putting tongue out
5. Cracking knuckles
6. Putting hands in pockets
7. Fiddling with buttons, ball pens, keys, coins, etc.
8. Constantly shifting from one foot to another.
9. Swaying from side to side, rocking backward and forward.
10. Putting thumbs under the belt.
5. Rapport with the audience
An effective speaker is someone who establishes rapport or relationship and connection with this
audience. One way of establishing rapport with audience is through eye contact. Jaffee (1998) reiterated that
people won’t lie if they are looking directly at you; eye contact also communicates friendliness. In
intrapersonal relationships foe instance, one person who avoids the other’s gaze signals a lack of interest in
developing a relationship. Speech communication is more than just standing in front of an audience and
talking to them; acknowledge your audience before and after your speech, make your audience feel special by
complimenting and acknowledging them.
Dorothea Stuart (2014) suggested ten helpful tips to help you gain rapport and engage your audience
during your speech or presentation and beyond.
Ten Ways to Build Rapport and Engage your Audience
1. Put your audience first
The key to rapport is getting to know as much as possible about your audience before you start
preparing your speech or presentation. With limited time for your talk there are always choices to be
made so the more you know the better you can tailor your technical content and examples to meet your
audience’s needs and expectations.
2. Find opportunities for humour
 Knowledge of your audience gives you the chance to find opportunities for humour, one of the oldest
rapport building techniques. We warm to people who make us laugh. It is also a way of showing that you
are ‘’one of them’’.
3. Allow for flexibility in your content
Write a speech that will take approximately 80% of the time you’ve been allocated. Then arrive early and
talk to as many people as possible. That way you may pick up stories, examples that you can refer to in
your presentation. You may also discover an important concern that you can emphasize. The ability to
flex your speech in this way shows a genuine responsiveness to your audience which will be appreciated.
4. First impressions count
As a speaker you are on show from the moment you start meeting your audience: walking into the
conference hotel, the board room at work, stepping onto the podium. Dress appropriately and be in the
mental and physical state which communicates a positive attitude and energy to your audience. If you
look as if you are interested and eager to speak to them you are well on your way to establishing
rapport.
5. Have a strong opening
If you are at a formal event write the introduction you want the emcee to give. You want people to hear
information that builds credibility/authority with this particular audience. This is an essential part of
rapport. If audience members feel they are in good hands they will relax and give their attention. Next,
find an opening that will grab the attention and engage your audience as Quickly as possible.

6. Manage the middle

If you are giving a long talk you need to maintain and peak the audience’s interest at key points in your
speech. A humorous twist can do this. You can also build up your key arguments to shocking, or
unexpectedly positive conclusions.
7. Use stories for emotional connection.
Rapport depends on emotional connection and stories are a highly effective way to achieve this. ‘’Make
a point.’’ is the public speaking mantra. Evidence shows that even if we grasp the facts, we’re more likely
to remember the story that illustrates it when we go back to our desks.
8. Use your voice with variety
Varying the pace and volume at which you speak can add to the impact of you presentation. If you are
telling a story about a fast-paced environment- pick up your pace. If you’re giving a piece of complex
information- slow down and let people absorb it. If your voice matches your content it will be more
engaging.
9. Give the audience time
If you say something funny let everyone laugh and enjoy the moment. If you’ve said something with
strong emotion give time for it to be absorbed. If you rush on to make your next point you signal that
your needs are most important. By pausing you show you are there for them.
10. Have strong ending.
Craft a clear, concise summary of your key message to end on. You may have a call to action which
should be specific so that people leave knowing exactly what they need to do. That way your ideas will
stay with them.