Precipitation, Global Distribution of

The global distribution of precipitation is influenced by the general circulation of the

atmosphere, proximity to large bodies of water, and topography. Precipitation is most
abundant where air rises, and least abundant where it sinks. It also tends to be greater
near oceans and lakes, and in higher elevations.

General Circulation
The Earth's atmosphere is known to have regions characterized by largescale rising air,
and other regions with descending air; these vary by latitude and by season. Rising air
is found primarily near the equator and in the midlatitudes (40° to 60° North and South
latitude), so these tend to be wet areas. Descending air dominates in the subtropics
(20° to 30° North and South latitude) and the poles. * The global distribution of
precipitation shows that the wettest areas on Earth are in the "rising air" zones, while
the driest areas (subtropical deserts and the even drier polar areas) are in the
"descending air" belts.
As the Earth revolves around the Sun during the year, the orientation of its axis relative
to the Sun changes. This causes the apparent position of the Sun relative to the Earth
to change, and creates distinct seasons. Between March and September, the axis of
Earth is tilted toward the Sun, and hence the Sun shines more directly over the Northern
Hemisphere, resulting in more sunlight, more heat, and the warmer temperatures of
Northern summer. In the other 6 months, the Earth's axis is tilted away from the Sun,
and the Sun shines more directly over the Southern Hemisphere, bringing summer to
countries south of the Equator (and winter to the north).
The "rising" and "sinking" zones move northward and southward with the Sun's path.
Thus, the wet area near the Equator moves northward into the Northern Hemisphere in
its summer, and southward into the Southern Hemisphere during its summer. Similarly,
the dry zones and wet zone at higher latitudes shift northward and southward
throughout the year.
The result of these shifting zones are latitude bands with distinctive precipitation
characteristics:
0–5° latitude: wet throught the year (rising zone)
5–20° latitude: wet summer (rising zone), dry winter (sinking zone)
20–30° latitude: dry all year (sinking zone)
30–50° latitude: wet winter (rising zone), dry summer (sinking zone)
50–60° latitude: wet all year (rising zone)
60–70° latitude: wet summer (rising zone), dry winter (sinking zone)
70–90° latitude: dry all year (sinking zone)
If the Earth had no mountains, and oceans were homogeneous with respect to their
heat content, the climate would occur in latitude bands like those listed above. However,
mountains indeed exist, and they exert a strong influence on precipitation, as do warm
and cold ocean currents.

Topography
When moving encounters a hill or mountain, it is forced to rise. Because rising air cools
and condenses, precipitation is heaviest on the upwind side of a mountain, where the
air is rising. This process is known as orographic lifting. On the downwind side, air
descends, warms, and becomes drier. * In some parts of the world (such as the tropics),
winds are steady throughout the year, and if these steady, moist winds encounter a
mountain range, precipitation will occur frequently.
One example of a mountainous area receiving frequent rain is Mt. Waialeale on Kauai,
Hawaii. It is a sharp peak directly in the path of steady trade winds which blow from the
northeast most of the time. On the upwind (northeast) side of Waialeale, the air rises
and condenses, resulting in almost constant clouds—nearly every day experiences rain.
Waialeale is among the wettest places on Earth: over a 10-year period, annual rainfall
averages more than 1,143 centimeters (450 inches). This is more than 8 times greater
than rainfall experienced in many parts of the midwestern United States.
In contrast, on the downwind (southwest) side of Mt. Waialeale, the air descends,
warms, and dries, in an area known as a "rain shadow." The result is a semiarid area
with less than 51 centimeters (20 inches) of rain a year. This tremendous difference in
precipitation—from 1,143 to 51 centimeters annually—occurs in a span of only 32
kilometers (20 miles).
Not every location receives such steady winds as Waialeale. But most mountainous
areas have a wet side and a dry side, depending on the typical wind direction.
Mountains can partially or completely override the rising

The formation of clouds and precipitation is a function of latitude, topography, and the presence of warm or cold
oceans or large lakes, among other factors. This cumulus cloud is building into a cumulonimbus, which can
bring heavy thunderstorms and even tornadoes.
and descending zones described above. Mountains can bring precipitation to normally
dry areas, and downwind slopes of mountains can be dry, even in normally wet areas
like the tropics.

Presence of Oceans or Lakes

According to the water cycle concept, water originates in the ocean, evaporates, rises
into the air, condenses, falls as precipitation, and returns to the ocean. * This concept is
generally true. However, the temperature of the water exerts a strong influence on how
well the cycle operates.
The warmer the surface of the ocean (or a large lake), the faster it evaporates, all other
things being equal. Warm ocean waters evaporate tremendous amounts of water into
the atmosphere, causing the dew point to be very high. (Dew point represents the actual
amount of water vapor in the air.) Near warm waterbodies, the air usually has enough
moisture to produce abundant precipitation—all it takes is for the air to rise, either by
heating, or by encountering a mountain or other elevated terrain. On the other hand,
cold ocean currents are relatively passive when it comes to evaporating water, so the
dew points in such areas are lower (and the precipitation potential is lower) than near
warm water.
As an example, consider two U.S. cities, both on the ocean at about the same latitude.
Santa Monica, California, on the cool Pacific, is in the "wet winter, dry summer" zone
between 30° and 50° North latitude, and receives only 36 centimeters (14 inches) of
precipitation per year due to relatively low evaporation from the Pacific. Charleston,
South Carolina, on the other hand, is on the very warm Atlantic. So much moisture is
available to Charleston that it receives more rain in 2 months (July and August) than
Santa Monica does all year, even though Charleston should also be a "wet winter, dry
summer" location. For the year, nearly 127 centimeters (50 inches) are recorded in
Charleston.
Moreover, the high dew points yield very high humidity at Charleston and other eastern
U.S. cities, making them more uncomfortable during summer. Meanwhile, in the "low
dew point" city of Santa Monica, the residents are cooled by ocean breezes and enjoy
steady sunshine during the typically very dry summers.

Factors controlling the distribution of rainfall over the earth's surface are the belts of converging-
ascending air flow (see doldrums ; polar front ), air temperature, moisture-bearing winds, ocean currents,
distance inland from the coast, and mountain ranges. Ascending air is cooled by expansion, which results
in the formation of clouds and the production of rain. Conversely, in the broad belts of descending air
(see horse latitudes ) are found the great desert regions of the earth, descending air being warmed by
compression and consequently absorbing instead of releasing moisture. If the temperature is low, the air
has a small moisture capacity and is able to produce little precipitation. When winds blow over the ocean,
especially over areas of warm water (where evaporation of moisture into the air is active) toward a given
coastal area, that area receives more rainfall than a similar area where the winds blow from the interior
toward the oceans. Areas near the sea receive more rain than inland regions, since the winds constantly
lose moisture and may be quite dry by the time they reach the interior of a continent.
The windward slopes of mountain ranges generally receive heavy rainfall; the leeward slopes receive
almost no rain. The southwest coast of Chile, the west coast of Canada, and the northwest coast of the
United States receive much rain because they are struck by the moisture-bearing westerlies from the
Pacific and are backed by mountains that force the winds to rise and drop their moisture