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The rapid growth in the deep-water production sector worldwide has spawned a whole new
generation of floating production equipment. This paper will deal with some of the unique
corrosion challenges presented by these production systems, and how corrosion is being
managed using innovative coatings, new cathodic protection designs and corrosion resistant
materials. The paper will also address some unique monitoring and inspection issues that arise
for these structures.


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The new generation of floating offshore production systems such as Floating Production, Storage
and Offloading facilities (FPSO), SPAR (originally designated a Single Point Articulated Riser,
now generically applied cylindrical floating structures), Tensioned Leg Platforms (TLP), and
Deep Draft Caisson Vessels (DDCV) present a number of unusual corrosion control challenges.
This can be attributed mainly to the hybrid nature of these structures: similar to both
conventional production platforms in some respects and ocean going ships in others. Challenges
for corrosion control arise from:

1. The use of high strength materials on these structures.

2. The need to control weight and reduce corrosion allowance.
3. Many confined spaces and tanks.
4. A lack of operational history.
5. A high number of dynamic components and non-welded connections.
6. Inspection and monitoring can be quite difficult.

Corrosion engineers should therefore err on the side of caution when specifying corrosion
control systems for these types of structures, and they often must use laboratory simulation and
parallel operational history from other areas of the industry to guide them. The operator must
also be aware of regulated in-service inspection requirements and allow appropriate monitoring
and inspection aids to be specified during construction. Close cooperation between structural
engineers (naval architects), subsea engineers and corrosion / materials engineers is absolutely
critical. Recent design experience, highlighting solutions and some conflicts of opinion will be
presented.


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The Deep Draft Caisson Vessel (shown in Fig. 1) [5] and SPAR type structures have presented
deep water operators with a cost effective production facility for prospects with a moderate
number of subsea wells, and are being widely used in the Gulf of Mexico. A typical Truss SPAR
design is shown in Fig. 2 [5]. These structures present the following main components, each of
which has unique problems. These structures contain the majority of the problems encountered
on other types of floating production systems, so an in-depth analysis of a corrosion control
approach should serve well for many other floating production cases.

Figure 1: Conventional Spar - Deep Draft Caisson Vessel

Figure 2: Truss SPAR Structure

,   

, - The hull is typically a large cylindrical steel tube with a variety of internal
compartments that provide buoyancy to support the topside drilling and production equipment
with a central annulus (center well) through which all production is accomplished. Hulls are
typically 90-120 ft. (30-40 m) diameter with a center well diameter of 30-50 ft. (10-16 m).
Overall length of the hull section can be 600 ft. (183 m) or more in length. This construction
presents two distinct sea-water immersed corrosion exposures.

-
, - Normally basic grades of carbon steel exposed to natural sea-water, these areas are
normally addressed using conventional marine epoxy coatings through the splash zone and
topsides and conventional sacrificial anode cathodic protection to bare steel in the immersed
region. Design criteria are the same as for conventional platforms. Monitoring of cathodic
protection (CP) system performance is simply accomplished using surface deployed or remotely
operated vehicle (ROV) interfaced monitoring equipment. Be aware that some areas of the hull
that are the outer wall of internal tanks may require some type of wall thickness monitoring. This
can be accomplished with an ROV, however the inspection locations should be clearly marked
and treated to prevent excessive marine growth accumulation.

 
  - Similar basic carbon steel but exposed to quiescent sea-water. Exclusion of
normal sunlight reduces marine growth accumulation and densely packed riser systems make
post installation access difficult to impossible, and can cause temperatures to riser a little above
ambient sea-water. The net result is a slightly lower current requirement for cathodic protection
of the steel on the wall of the center well. Data from early fixed monitoring systems indicates a
current density requirement of 6-9 m Al sq. ft. (60-90 m Al sq. m) initially and 1-3 m Al sq. ft.
(10-30 m Al sq. m) finally. A good design number for weight calculation would be 3 m Al sq. ft.
(30 m Al sq. m). Again coatings are typically used only in splash zone and emerged areas,
sacrificial anodes must be flush mounted to avoid obstructions during riser installation, this fact
must be taken into account when computing anode resistance. Be aware that additional anode
weight must be provided to offset current losses to the riser systems, (this will be discussed
further).

There are also a series of guide frame structures within the center well; these guides restrict
lateral movement of the riser systems during vessel relocation about its operational footprint and
offset normal hydrodynamic forces. It is important to locate anodes on these guide frames, as
they could be shielded from anodes on the inside wall. Bear in mind that it is these anodes that
will provide a large proportion of current drained to the risers through fortuitous contact.

The limited post installation access to this area makes it a good candidate for fixed reference
electrodes to monitor CP system performance, basic dual element electrodes (Figure. 3) can be
conveniently hard wired to the surface.

Figure 3: Polatrak® DR-2 Permanent Reference Electrode (Dual Element)

c
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 - Most recent designs utilize a truss section attached to the base of the main hull
to support the bottom main ballast tank at the base of the SPAR structure. The truss is typically
300-325 ft. (91-100 m) long. Construction is standard tubular steel members with periodic heave
plates, which provide guides for the riser systems. The truss section is normally left uncoated and
fitted with conventional sacrificial anodes. Design criteria and monitoring are the same as for a
conventional offshore structure in equivalent water depth.

,c. - The main hull will contain a number of internal compartments. Some of
these are void tanks that contain only air and are never flooded. Other tanks are variable ballast
tanks which will see raw sea-water some of the time and will be largely dry for the majority of
the life. Being a part of the hull, these compartments are fabricated from basic grades of carbon
steeL It is not uncommon for these tanks, particularly the variable ballast tanks, to be heavily
baffled and reinforced thus creating a large number of shielded compartments.

+c. - These tanks are usually vented to atmosphere and thus cannot be fully
deoxygenated. They are often susceptible to condensation on the inner walls. Access is possible
through man-ways and periodic visual and non-destructive examination is always a part of the
required in-service inspection program. Access to effect coating repairs during operation is
possible but economically undesirable. Two basic approaches may be adopted; economics will
usually determine the most desirable approach.

1. Coating as the main control possibly supplemented by vapor phase control as a backup
method. Where allowed, coal tar epoxies fill the role well being reasonably surface preparation
tolerant. Other two or three coat marine epoxy systems will provide equivalent protection. Vapor
phase inhibitors should contain soluble inhibitors to inhibit any condensed water and control
corrosion at coating defects.

Remember that these tanks will require some non-destructive testing, often to gauge hull
thickness on outer walls, perform weld inspection on critical joints (particularly deck
connections) that are only accessible from inside the tank. While advanced NDT techniques such
as ACFM, Pulsed Eddy Current and some advanced Ultrasonic methods allow evaluation
through in-situ coating; it may be worth leaving some controlled bare spots as back-up test
locations.

2. Dehumidification can be a very effective method of void space corrosion control. It is

simplicity itself; no water = no corrosion. Vapor phase control as a secondary method is a smart
strategy should the dehumidification system not be 100% for any reason. This method offers the
lowest cost in many cases; it may be necessary to include serial weight loss coupon arrays at
strategic in-tank locations as a method to verify level of corrosion control attained over the life
cycle. Coupon systems should be retrievable without tank entry; this allows regular retrievals,
between entry inspections, to closely monitor corrosion rates.

+
  c. ",
c. & - Coatings and sacrificial anode cathodic protection are
required in most cases. It is important to locate anodes in all compartments and distribute them
preferentially lower in the tank to be commensurate with expected life cycle surface wetting
times. Maintenance current densities for bare steel in these environments should be 3 mA/sq. ft.
(30 mA/sq M).

Particular attention should be paid to the coating quality in the upper areas of the tank likely to
be in wet atmospheric service for much of the time, in these areas it is worthwhile considering
the use of metallic based primers or even thermally sprayed aluminum (TSA) as a stand alone
coating or as an epoxy primer.

In-service access to these tanks is extremely difficult if not impossible; it is therefore wise to
include permanent reference electrodes on the lower surfaces of these tanks with signal cables to
the topsides.


  c. - On the design in question, there is a single large tank structure at
the base of the floating unit. This is called the "soft tank" or permanent ballast tank. Again,
construction is basic grades of carbon steel. The external surfaces of these tanks may are simply
left bare and cathodically protected. The inside surfaces present a fairly unique problem.

In order to provide maximum negative buoyancy at this location on the structure, it is necessary
to fill the tank not only with sea-water but also with additional dense material. The ballast of
choice is magnetite (FE30.) in a granular form. There is mixed opinion on the long-term effects
of this strategy, and little or no historical data from a field installation. Some FAQ's are:

1. Is there a risk of galvanic action between the magnetite and the steel?
2. Will the magnetite drain cathodic protection current meant for the underlying steel? Or will it
shield the steel?
3. What will happen to sacrificial anodes if located under the magnetite? Are zinc anodes a better
option than aluminum (certainly if increased weight is desirable)?
4. Is there any risk of microbial influenced corrosion (MIC) in these tanks under the magnetite,
particularly the anaerobes?

Based on the little that we do know [1] the most likely answers are (respectively):
1. No.
2. Current drain does not appear to be a risk, the question of shielding is unproven in a field
situation, but is considered unlikely.
3. No long term data are available, short term it has been observed that black colored corrosion
products appear on the anode surface, the long term effects of the anodes corrosion product on its
performance are unknown. There is no long-term information to suggest that zinc or aluminum
will have any specific advantage over the other.
4. Research is required on this subject.

Bearing the above in mind conservatism is strongly recommended. Use anodes both above and
below the magnetite a maintenance current density of 3-4 m Al sq. ft. (30-40 m Al sq. m) is
recommended; coat the tank particularly where the magnetite contacts the steel. Use a one shot
biocide. Install reference electrodes as well as current density and anode current monitors both
above and below the magnetite surface. When the full long term effects are known it may be
prudent to recommend a less stringent strategy.




 
   

The riser systems on this type of structures are referred to as top-tensioned risers (TIR's). They
are actually small structures within a structure, having their own buoyancy systems to support
them. The only designed contact to the hull structure is through the topside flow-line connections
which are above water, having said this there is a very high probability of fortuitous contact
through mechanical interference with the hull. The riser systems are free to move completely
independently of the hull. The extreme mechanical loading and complexity of these systems
provide a whole new set of concerns regarding corrosion control. The main areas of interest are:

'

 - These are large tank like structures built around the outer surface of the
riser conductor near the top of the riser. Thus they are always housed within the center well of
the main hull structure. There are a number of proprietary designs that are used but they have
some common corrosion areas irrespective of specific design.

-
)

- These see the same environment as the center well areas of the hull.
However buoyancy is critical so weight loading must be minimized, anodes are not a good
choice for this reason and reasons of mechanical interference with the risers guide frames. The
stroke length on these risers can be as much as 40 ft. (12 m) or more. While mechanical
interference is absorbed on wear strips on the outside of the can there is good possibility of
coating damage during installation of the risers.

Thermal Sprayed Aluminum (TSA) provides a good solution in this area, normally non-activated
aluminum grades are used and thinned epoxy sealers are applied to the coating, 10 mils (0.254
mm) is adequate for most design life requirements. While serving primarily as a barrier coating
the TSA can also provide an adequate level of cathodic protection to small areas of exposed
steel. It has the added advantage of high adhesion and low cohesion that allows it to smear if
mechanically impacted, thus reducing exposed steel area. Be aware that the coating is conductive
and will generally be at a potential that is 50 mV or more positive than the anodes in the hull
center well, and will thus drain a small amount of cathodic protection from those anodes when
contact between the structures exists. A design rule of thumb is to consider the TSA as a 90%
efficient coating; another reference [2] says I m N sq. ft. (10 m N sq. m). These numbers equate
to about the same amount of CP.

(
)

- Here there is more variation in environment and recommended corrosion
control based upon the air can design. In normal operation the cans are mainly void, they may
however have an open bottom that is sea-water exposed. Depending on the rate at which oxygen
can be consumed and replenished it may be prudent to coat the inside surfaces, and provide a
limited number of anodes at the base of the cans. Epoxy coatings are favored due largely to the
difficulty of applying TSA to the inner surfaces. Depending on the can fabrication method, there
may be some internal areas that are subject to damage from outside closing welds, take this into
consideration. Normally the cans are filled with nitrogen in order to exclude the sea-water during
installation, periodic re-filling is recommended to keep oxygen concentration to a minimum.

 
)
 - The main riser sections are of pipe-in-pipe type construction with the
outer pipe acting as a conductor. At the base of the riser that may be several thousand feet long
there is a stress joint (there may also be a similar section near the point of exit at the base of the
hull - referred to as the keel). For "dry tree" systems there will be a tieback connector that
connects the riser to the marine wellhead. Riser sections are installed in the field and are
mechanically coupled. The annulus between the riser and the outer pipe is usually flooded with
sea-water. Mechanical spacer I centralizers are clamped to the inner riser pipe to control
movement within the conductor pipe. In addition there may be external vortex shedding strake
sections clamped to some areas of the risers and syntactic foam buoyancy modules clamped
around others.

-
)



- These areas are exposed to sea-water (except inside the air
cans), and see all resistivity layers in the sea-water as they transit almost the entire water column.
The use of conventional coatings with bracelet anodes has several drawbacks:

1. Possible shielding and coating damage under clamped strakes and buoyancy modules.
2. Possible resistive build up through mechanical joints.
3. High risk of mechanical damage during installation, coupled with the need to minimize
outside diameter upsets that may snag during running operations.
4. Weight limitations.

For these reasons most systems use sealed TSA as the corrosion control. The advantages as
previously stated also address the drawbacks listed above. An additional incentive is the
competitive cost of applying TSA to standard tubular sections in large volume. Consider the
following points when formulating an overall strategy:

‡ Don't forget to coat the riser couplers; they will receive some damage from makeup tooling.
Bare or poorly coated couplers could drain the TSA unduly, particularly in the mid-water
sections of the riser.
‡ If the riser has designed or fortuitous electromechanical contact with other structures at its
extremities, ensure that adequate additional anode weight is provided to account for current drain
to the riser, attenuation models can be used to predict the length of influence from each end and
should be used when calculating amount and location of additional anode weight.

‡ It is also critical to ensure that the riser with TSA is not coupled to a large under-protected steel
entity as this could irreparably damage the TSA coating and compromise the protection system.

(
)

- The outside of the actual riser pipe should be treated like the outside of the
conductor (TSA coated). The inner wall of the conductor can be left bare if sea-water in the
annulus is suitably inhibited. Centralizers are always non metallic to prevent wear but also
ensure no metallic contact exists between inner and outer pipes. Take care when specifying
fasteners for the centralizers, these will be electrically isolated from every thing but could be
subject to crevice corrosion if improperly specified. A precise knowledge of the annular fluid
chemistry is required before specifying, however avoid thin film non-metallic coatings on carbon
steel and low end 300 series stainless steels 316 or lower.

)
 - As the name suggests these joints are designed to take the major share of bending
moment on the riser, they are therefore made from high strength materials with good stress
characteristics and are located in the outer conductor pipe. Some titanium grades are particularly
suitable from a mechanical standpoint and are therefore a common choice in many systems. The
propensity of titanium to suffer hydriding under cathodic protection at certain levels provides a
dilemma, one made more difficult by the lack of long term field data and the very high
consequence of a failure. A number of articles have been published on these phenomena [3,4].
As previously stated, the high risk and limited experience should justify a conservative approach.
Three basic methods are available and are often specified in combination, each is designed to
control the surface potential on the titanium.

1. Isolate the titanium from the rest of the system. This can be accomplished using flange
isolation materials or a specially constructed isolation joint at each end of the stress section.

2. Cover the titanium to stop cathodic protection, heavy elastomeric coatings have been used,
they provide a tough yet flexible barrier. This can be difficult to apply however and other
coatings may be suitable. Be sure to cover all the titanium, flanges can de difficult. If this is the
only method used it is wise to develop a proven field repair procedure and an in-situ repair
procedure in the event that the coating barrier is penetrated.

3. Ennoblement systems couple controlled areas of a noble material to the titanium to depress its
potential. This method is the least desirable of the three since it will impose a drain on the CP
systems and the term polarization data are very limited to say the least.

Whichever method is used, these areas should be subject to close investigation during in-service
sub-sea inspections. Potential measurements on non essential titanium coupons tied to the stress
joint that can be stabbed by an ROV interfaced CP probe, can provide good operational
verification that the stress joint is isolated.
c /
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- The tie-back connector mayor may not be electrically isolated from the
riser above, in either case it can be treated as an extension of the riser and receive the same
corrosion treatments. Ensure that if TSA is used that the wellhead to which it's connected has
adequate and compatible levels of cathodic protection.


     

In deep water it is common practice to pre-drill a number of wells then temporarily cap them
until the production structure can be located on site. Some of these pre-drilled wells have
nowhere to attach anodes for corrosion protection. In these cases it is prudent to install a pod of
anode material (Figure. 4). which can be electrically tied back to one or more of these wells
using ROV installed clamps (Figure. 5). These pods can produce currents in the tens of Amperes
range. Pod installation is straightforward, and an added benefit, the current from the pods can be
easily monitored using an ROV stab interface.

Figure 4: Seabed Anode Pod: RetroPod tied to jacket with RetroClamp.

Current monitoring stabs with cathodic protection probe are taken at the the top of the steel part
of the Pod.
Figure 5: ROV Installed Tie-back Clamps (RetroClampŒ)


   

Lateral mooring systems are required to enable the hull structure to be moved around its
operational footprint. These multi-leg systems comprise several key components that need to be
addressed. Obviously the moorings are subject to very high loading and a corrosion failure could
be very costly.

0
1 2    - At the surface the moorings comprise a long section of chain,
guided by a fairlead structure attached to the hull.


  - These are basically a large sheave on a hinged support through which the mooring
chain makes the turn toward the seabed, they are normally located near the bottom end of the
main hull structure. Cathodic protection is a suitable method for corrosion control, but the
following precautions are required:
1. Ensure that a flexible continuity jumper cable is provided between the fairlead structure and
the hull.
2. Ensure that current losses to the chain are calculated when sizing anodes.

0
 - Chains are very difficult to protect from corrosion due to their construction and
operational requirements. This is one area where a generous corrosion allowance is normally
provided. The problem is that they will draw cathodic protection (CP) current from structures to
which they are electrically connected; the degree of connectivity is difficult to predict or
quantify. A rule of thumb is to assume that approximately 200 ft. (60 m) of chain is likely to pick
up CP in each direction away from a probable contact point. It would be difficult to locate
sufficient anode material on the cheek plates of the fairlead to satisfy this drain, hence the
importance of ensuring electrical continuity between the fairlead and the hull.

 

 - This is the long section of the mooring through the water column to
the seabed and is usually a large diameter spiral strand wire rope for most of its length. Large
connectors are used to couple the rope to the upper chain section and the lower chain section.


  - There are a number of commercially available rope designs that adequately
address corrosion control, usually rope strands are coated with either zinc or a zinc / aluminum
alloy, the bundle is often treated with a blocking compound to restrict the water path to the inner
strands and the whole bundle is sheathed with a polyethylene jacket. This scheme has proven to
be quite acceptable in most cases.



- The connectors are normally provided with anodes directly attached to the body.
Some designs provide electrical isolation of the connector, this is favorable, particularly when
connected to a chain, and again it is difficult to provide enough anode material to cover losses
along the chain. The bearing surfaces of these connectors are usually sheathed or lined with a
hard corrosion resistant alloy which is cathodic to the connector body material, thus it is
important to maintain protected potentials on these areas.

)     - The lower sections of the moorings usually comprise of a "ground chain"

section, which is connected by shackle to either an anchor or an anchor pile. While corrosion
rates are low in this region some operators require protection. Given the difficulty of attaching
sufficient anodes to the pile or anchor, the anode pod concept previously described can be a
viable alternative.


! 
 
   

Export risers and flow lines from remote wells are either steel catenary design or may utilize
flexible sections. Various methods have been used successfully utilizing either conventional
Fusion Bond Epoxy (FBE) type coatings or TSA. Anodes can be located on the riser catenary
section but some operators prefer to use anodes located at the touch down area and on the hull to
provide protection from the ends.

)

  

When formulating corrosion control strategies for these systems the following points are
important:

1. Ensure system compatibility between all components, and make sure there is an overview
material compatibility review performed.
2. Consider in-service inspection requirements when designing systems.
3. Remember to account for CP losses to TSA coated components and other unprotected entities.
4. Use conservative designs throughout.






[1] In-House Deepwater Corrosion Services Study - Unpublished.

[2] DNV RP B 401 (1993) Section 6.3.16
[3] Jeih Ing & Paul Chung "A Study of Hydriding of Titanium in Sea-water Under Cathodic
Polarization" CORROSION 86, Paper #259
[4] Ronald W. Schultz "Guidelines for Successful Integration of Titanium Alloy Components
into Subsea Production Systems" CORROSION 2001, Paper# 003
[5] Operating Company Web Sites