ACCESS TECHNOLOGY

TABLE OF CONTENT

MOBILE ACCESS TECHNOLOGIES

 Code division multiple access (cdma)

 frequency division multiple access (fdma)
 time division multiple access (tdma)
 space division multiple access (sdma)

CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

 Coding
 Codes
 The spreading process
 Power control

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

 TDMA Characteristic

FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

 Feature

ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS 

 Advantages over  CDMA

 OFDMA advantages
 Disadvantages of OFDMA
 Principles of operation

SPACE-DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

REFERENCE
INTRODUCTON TO ACCESS SCHEMES

For radio systems there are two resources, frequency and time. Division by frequency,
so that each pair of communicators is allocated part of the spectrum for all of the time,
results in Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). Division by time, so that each pair
of communicators is allocated all (or at least a large part) of the spectrum for part of
the time results in Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). In Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA), every communicator will be allocated the entire spectrum all of the
time. CDMA uses codes to identify connections.

Multiple Access Schemes

CDMA

Commercially introduced in 1995, CDMA quickly became one of the world's fastest-
growing wireless technologies. In 1999, the International Telecommunications Union
selected CDMA as the industry standard for new "third-generation" (3G) wireless
systems. Many leading wireless carriers are now building or upgrading to 3G CDMA
networks in order to provide more capacity for voice traffic, along with high-speed data
capabilities.

CDMA is a form of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum communications. In general,

Spread Spectrum communications is distinguished by three key elements:
1. The signal occupies a bandwidth much greater than that which is necessary to send
the information. This results in many benefits, such as immunity to interference and
jamming and multi-user access, which we'll discuss later on.

2. The bandwidth is spread by means of a code which is independent of the data. The
independence of the code distinguishes this from standard modulation schemes in
which the data modulation will always spread the spectrum somewhat.

3. The receiver synchronizes to the code to recover the data. The use of an
independent code and synchronous reception allows multiple users to access the same
frequency band at the same time.

In order to protect the signal, the code used is pseudo-random. It appears random, but
is actually deterministic, so that the receiver can reconstruct the code for synchronous
detection. This pseudo-random code is also called pseudo-noise (PN).

There are three ways to spread the bandwidth of the signal:

 Frequency hopping. The signal is rapidly switched between different frequencies

within the hopping bandwidth pseudo-randomly, and the receiver knows before
hand where to find the signal at any given time.
 Time hopping. The signal is transmitted in short bursts pseudo-randomly, and
the receiver knows beforehand when to expect the burst.
 Direct sequence. The digital data is directly coded at a much higher frequency.
The code is generated pseudo-randomly, the receiver knows how to generate
the same code, and correlates the received signal with that code to extract the
data.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a radically new concept in wireless

communications. It has gained widespread international acceptance by cellular radio
system operators as an upgrade that will dramatically increase both their system
capacity and the service quality. It has likewise been chosen for deployment by the
majority of the winners of the United States Personal Communications System spectrum
auctions. It may seem, however, mysterious for those who aren't familiar with it. This
site is provided in an effort to dispel some of the mystery and to disseminate at least a
basic level of knowledge about the technology.

CDMA is a form of spread-spectrum , a family of digital communication techniques that

have been used in military applications for many years. The core principle of spread
spectrum is the use of noise-like carrier waves, and, as the name implies, bandwidths
much wider than that required for simple point-to-point communication at the same
data rate. Originally there were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam
the communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or to hide the fact that communication was even
taking place, sometimes called low probability of intercept (LPI). It has a history that
goes back to the early days of World War II.

The use of CDMA for civilian mobile radio applications is novel. It was proposed
theoretically in the late 1940's, but the practical application in the civilian marketplace
did not take place until 40 years later. Commercial applications became possible
because of two evolutionary developments. One was the availability of very low cost,
high density digital integrated circuits, which reduce the size, weight, and cost of the
subscriber stations to an acceptably low level. The other was the realization that
optimal multiple access communication requires that all user stations regulate their
transmitter powers to the lowest that will achieve adequate signal quality.

CDMA changes the nature of the subscriber station from a predominately analog device
to a predominately digital device. Old-fashioned radio receivers separate stations or
channels by filtering in the frequency domain. CDMA receivers do not eliminate analog
processing entirely, but they separate communication channels by means of a pseudo-
random modulation that is applied and removed in the digital domain, not on the basis
of frequency. Multiple users occupy the same frequency band. This universal frequency
reuse is not fortuitous. On the contrary, it is crucial to the very high spectral efficiency
that is the hallmark of CDMA. Other discussions in these pages show why this is true.

CDMA is altering the face of cellular and PCS communication by:

 Dramatically improving the telephone traffic capacity

 Dramatically improving the voice quality and eliminating the audible effects of
multipath fading
 Reducing the incidence of dropped calls due to handoff failures
 Providing reliable transport mechanism for data communications, such as
facsimile and internet traffic
 Reducing the number of sites needed to support any given amount of traffic
 Simplifying site selection
 Reducing deployment and operating costs because fewer cell sites are needed
 Reducing average transmitted power
 Reducing interference to other electronic devices
 Reducing potential health risks

Technically speaking, CDMA is only a means to transmit bits of information, while IS-
95B is a transmission protocol that employs CDMA. One of the terms you'll hear in
conjunction with CDMA is "Soft Handoff". A handoff occurs in any cellular system when
your call switches from one cell site to another as you travel. In all other technologies
this handoff occurs when the network informs your phone of the new channel to which
it must switch. The phone then stops receiving and transmitting on the old channel, and
it commences transmitting and receiving on the new channel. It goes without saying
that this is known as a "Hard Handoff".

In CDMA however, every site are on the SAME frequency. In order to begin listening to
a new site the phone only needs to change the pseudo-random sequence it uses to
decode the desired data from the jumble of bits sent for everyone else. While a call is in
progress the network chooses two or more alternate sites that it feels are handoff
candidates. It simultaneously broadcasts a copy of your call on each of these sites. Your
phone can then pick and choose between the different sources for your call, and move
between them whenever it feels like it. It can even combine the data received from two
or more different sites to ease the transition from one to the other.

This arrangement therefore puts the phone in almost complete control of the handoff
process. Such an arrangement should ensure that there is always a new site primed
and ready to take over the call at a moment's notice. In theory, this should put an end
to dropped calls and audio interruptions during the handoff process. In practice it works
quite well, but dropped calls are still a fact of life in a mobile environment. However,
CDMA rarely drops a call due to a failed handoff.

A big problem facing CDMA systems is channel pollution. This occurs when signals from
too many base stations are present at the subscriber's phone, but none are dominant.
When this situation occurs the audio quality degrades rapidly, even when the signal
seem otherwise very strong. Pollution occurs frequently in densely populated urban
environments where service providers must build many sites in close proximity. Channel
pollution can also result from massive multipath problems caused by many tall
buildings. Taming pollution is a tuning and system design issue. It is up to the service
provider to reduce this phenomenon as much as possible.

In defense of CDMA however, I should point out that the new EVRC CODEC is far more
robust than either of the earlier CODECs. Because of its increased robustness it
provides much more consistent audio in the face of high frame error rates. EVRC is an 8
kilobit CODEC that provides audio quality that is almost as good to the older 13 kilobit
CODEC. Since CDMA consumes only as much of the "ether" as a user talks, switching
everyone to an 8 kilobit CODEC was an inevitable move.

CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access is based spectrum technology. Since it is suitable
for encrypted transmissions, it has long been used for military purposes. CDMA
increases spectrum capacity by allowing all users to occupy all channels at the same
time. Transmissions are spread over the whole radio band, and each voice or data call
are assigned a unique code to differentiate from the other calls carried over the same
spectrum. CDMA allows for a soft hand, which means that terminals can communicate
with several base stations at the same time. The dominant radio interface for third-
generation mobile, or IMT-2000, will be a wideband version of CDMA with three modes
(IMT-DS, IMT-MC and IMT-TC).
CODING

CDMA uses unique spreading codes to spread the baseband data before transmission.
The signal is transmitted in a channel, which is below noise level. The receiver then
uses a correlator to despread the wanted signal, which is passed through a narrow
bandpass filter. Unwanted signals will not be despread and will not pass through the
filter. Codes take the form of a carefully designed one/zero sequence produced at a
much higher rate than that of the baseband data. The rate of a spreading code is
referred to as chip rate rather than bit rate.

CDMA SPREADING

CODES

CDMA codes are not required to provide call security, but create a uniqueness to enable
call identification. Codes should not correlate to other codes or time shifted version of
itself. Spreading codes are noise like pseudo-random codes, channel codes are
designed for maximum separation from each other and cell identification codes are
balanced not to correlate to other codes of itself.

CODES
CDMA codes are not required to provide call security, but create a uniqueness to
enable call identification. Codes should not correlate to other codes or time shifted
version of itself. Spreading codes are noise like pseudo-random codes, channel codes
are designed for maximum separation from each other and cell identification codes are
balanced not to correlate to other codes of itself.

Example OVSF codes, used in channel coding

THE SPREADING PROCESS

WCDMA uses Direct Sequence spreading, where spreading process is done by directly
combining the baseband information to high chip rate binary code. The Spreading
Factor is the ratio of the chips (UMTS = 3.84Mchips/s) to baseband information rate.
Spreading factors vary from 4 to 512 in FDD UMTS. Spreading process gain can in
expressed in dBs (Spreading factor 128 = 21dB gain).
See spreading page for more details.

CDMA spreading
POWER CONTROL

CDMA is interference limited multiple access system. Because all users transmit on the
same frequency, internal interference generated by the system is the most significant
factor in determining system capacity and call quality. The transmit power for each user
must be reduced to limit interference, however, the power should be enough to
maintain the required Eb/No (signal to noise ratio) for a satisfactory call quality.
Maximum capacity is achieved when Eb/No of every user is at the minimum level
needed for the acceptable channel performance. As the MS moves around, the RF
environment continuously changes due to fast and slow fading, external interference,
shadowing , and other factors. The aim of the dynamic power control is to limit
transmitted power on both the links while maintaining link quality under all conditions.
Additional advantages are longer mobile battery life and longer life span of BTS power
amplifiers

TDMA

TDMA technology, which stands for Time Division Multiple Access, is a cell phone

standard that has been incorporated into the more advanced GSM standard, which is
now the world’s most widely used cell phone technology. TDMA is used in second-
generation (2G) cell phone systems such as GSM. Most major third-generation (3G) cell
phone systems are primarily based upon GSM rival CDMA. 3G allows for faster data
speeds over 2G. While TDMA and CDMA both achieve the same goal, they do so using
different methods. TDMA technology works by dividing each digital cellular channel into
three time slots for the purpose of increasing the amount of data carried. Multiple
users, therefore, can share the same frequency channel without causing interference
because the signal is divided into multiple time slots. While each conversation is
transmitted alternately over short lengths of time with TDMA technology, CDMA
separates communications by code so multiple calls can also be routed into the same
channel. The major cell phone carriers in the U.S. no longer use TDMA. Sprint, Virgin
Mobile and Verizon Wireless use CDMA while T-Mobile and AT&T use 

TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) improves spectrum capacity by splitting
each frequency into time slots. TDMA allows each user to access the entire radio
frequency channel for the short period of a call. Other users share this same frequency
channel at different time slots. The base station continually switches from user to user
on the channel. TDMA is the dominant technology for the second generation mobile
cellularnetworks. 
TDMA CHARACTERISTIC
 Shares single carrier frequency with multiple users
 Non-continuous transmission makes handoff simpler
 Slots can be assigned on demand in dynamic TDMA
 Less stringent power control than CDMA due to reduced intra cell interference
 Higher synchronization overhead than CDMA
 Advanced equalization may be necessary for high data rates if the channel is
"frequency selective" and creates Intersymbol interference
 Cell breathing (borrowing resources from adjacent cells) is more complicated
than in CDMA
 Frequency/slot allocation complexity
 Pulsating power envelope: Interference with other devices

FDMA

FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is the most common analog system.
It is a technique whereby spectrum is divided up into frequencies and then assigned to
users. With FDMA, only one subscriber at any given time is assigned to a channel. The
channel therefore is closed to other conversations until the initial call is finished, or until
it is handed-off to a different channel. FDMA transmission requires two channels, one
for transmitting and the other for receiving. FDMA has been used for first generation
analog systems. 
FEATURES

 In FDMA all users share the satellite simultaneously but each user transmits at
single frequency.
 FDMA can be used with both analog and digital signal.
 FDMA requires high-performing filters in the radio hardware, in contrast
to TDMA and CDMA.
 FDMA is not vulnerable to the timing problems that TDMA has. Since a
predetermined frequency band is available for the entire period of communication,
stream data (a continuous flow of data that may not be packetized) can easily be
used with FDMA.
 Due to the frequency filtering, FDMA is not sensitive to near-far problem which is
pronounced for CDMA.
 Each user transmits and receives at different frequencies as each user gets a
unique frequency slot
It is important to distinguish between FDMA and frequency-division duplexing (FDD).
While FDMA allows multiple users simultaneous access to a certain system, FDD refers
to how the radio channel is shared between the uplink and downlink (for instance, the
traffic going back and forth between a mobile-phone and a base-station). Furthermore,
frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) should not be confused with FDMA. The former is
a physical layer technique that combines and transmits low-bandwidth channels
through a high-bandwidth channel. FDMA, on the other hand, is an access method in
the data link layer.

FDMA also supports demand assignment in addition to fixed assignment. Demand

assignment allows all users apparently continuous access of the radio spectrum by
assigning carrier frequencies on a temporary basis using a statistical assignment
process. The first FDMA demand-assignment system for satellite was developed
by COMSAT for use on the Intelsat series IVA and V satellites. There are two main
techniques:

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a technique the carrier bandwidth is divided

into sub-channels of different frequency widths, each carrying a signal at the same time
in parallel.Each channel is 30 kHz. All the signals may be amplified, conducted,
translated in frequency and routed toward a destination as a single signal, resulting in
economies which are the motivation for multiplexing. Receivers at the receiving end
separates the multiplexed signals by means of frequency passing or rejecting filters,
and demodulates the results individually, each in the manner appropriate for the
modulation scheme used for that band or group.

Wavelength Division Multiplex (WDM) and Frequency Division multiplex (FDM) are both
based on the same principles but WDM applies to digitized wavelengths of light in
optical fiber while FDM is used in analog transmission such as twisted pair telephone
line, cable access, cellular, radio and TV communications. TDMA and CDMA are always
used in combination with FDMA, i.e., a given frequency channel may be used for either
TDMA or CDMA independently of signals on other frequency channels.

Where frequency division multiplexing is used as to allow multiple users to share a

physical communications channel, it is called frequency division multiple access (FDMA).
FDMA analog transmissions are the least efficient networks since each analog channel
can only be used one user at a time. Analog channels don't take full advantage of band-
width. Not only are these FDMA channels larger than necessary given modern digital
compression, but they are also wasted whenever there is silence during communication.
Analog signals are especially susceptible to noise and the extra noise cannot get filtered
out.

FDM: Frequency Division Multiplex and FDMA

ANALOG CARRIER SYSTEMS
The standard telephony voice band [300 – 3400 Hz] is heterodyned and stacked on
high frequency carriers by single sideband amplitude modulation. This is the most
bandwidth efficient scheme possible.

The analog voice channels are pre-grouped into threes and heterodyned on carriers
at 12, 16, and 20 KHz. The resulting upper sidebands of four such pregroups are
then heterodyned on carriers at 84, 96, 108, and 120 KHz to form a 12-channel
group.

Since the lower sideband is selected in the second mixing stage, the channel
sequence is reversed and a frequency inversion occurs within each channel.
BENEFITS OF FDM

FDM allows engineers to transmit multiple data streams simultaneously over the same
channel, at the expense of bandwidth. To that extent, FDM provides a trade-off: faster
data for more bandwidth. Also, to demultiplex an FDM signal requires a series of
bandpass filters to isolate each individual signal. Bandpass filters are relatively
complicated and expensive, therefore the receivers in an FDM system are generally
expensive.
EXAMPLES OF FDM

As an example of an FDM system, Commercial broadcast radio (AM and FM radio)

simultaneously transmits multiple signals or "stations" over the airwaves. These stations
each get their own frequency band to use, and a radio can be tuned to receive each
different station. Another good example is cable television, which simultanously
transmits every channel, and the TV "tunes in" to which channel it wants to watch.

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a more modern variant of FDM

that uses orthogonal sub-carriers to transmit data that does not overlap in the
frequency spectrum and is able to be separated out using frequency methods. OFDM
has a similar data rate to traditional FDM systems, but has a higher resilience to
disruptive channel conditions such as noise and channel fading.
OFDM

Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) is a multi-user version of the

popular Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) digital modulation
scheme. Multiple access is achieved in OFDMA by assigning subsets of subcarriers to
individual users as shown in the illustration below. This allows simultaneous low data
rate transmission from several users.

ADVANTAGES OVER CDMA

 OFDM can combat multipath interference with more robustness and less

complexity.
 OFDMA can achieve a higher MIMO spectral efficiency due to providing flatter
frequency channels than a CDMA rake receiver can.
 No cell size breathing as more users connect.
ADVANTAGES OVER OFDM WITH TIME-DOMAIN STATISTICAL
MULTIPLEXING

 Allows simultaneous low-data-rate transmission from several users.

 Pulsed carrier can be avoided.
 Lower maximum transmission power for low data rate users.
 Shorter delay, and constant delay.
 Contention-based multiple access (collision avoidance) is simplified.
 Further improves OFDM robustness to fading and interference.

OFDMA ADVANTAGES

 Flexibility of deployment across various frequency bands with little needed

modification to the air interface.[1]
 Averaging interferences from neighboring cells, by using different basic carrier
permutations between users in different cells.
 Interferences within the cell are averaged by using allocation with cyclic
permutations.
 Enables Single Frequency Network coverage, where coverage problem exists and
gives excellent coverage.
 Offers Frequency diversity by spreading the carriers all over the used spectrum.

RECOGNIZED DISADVANTAGES OF OFDMA

 Higher sensitivity to frequency offsets and phase noise.

 Asynchronous data communication services such as web access are
characterized by short communication bursts at high data rate. Few users in
a base station cell are transferring data simultaneously at low constant data rate.
 The complex OFDM electronics, including the FFT algorithm and forward error
correction, is constantly active independent of the data rate, which is inefficient
from power consumption point of view, while OFDM combined with data packet
scheduling may allow FFT algorithm to hibernate during certain time intervals.
 The OFDM diversity gain, and resistance to frequency-selective fading, may
partly be lost if very few sub-carriers are assigned to each user, and if the same
 carrier is used in every OFDM symbol. Adaptive sub-carrier assignment based on
fast feedback information about the channel, or sub-carrier frequency hopping, is
therefore desirable.
 Dealing with co-channel interference from nearby cells is more complex in OFDM
than in CDMA. It would require dynamic channel allocation with advanced
coordination among adjacent base stations.
 The fast channel feedback information and adaptive sub-carrier assignment is
more complex than CDMA fast power control.

CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

Based on feedback information about the channel conditions, adaptive user-to-

subcarrier assignment can be achieved. If the assignment is done sufficiently fast, this
further improves the OFDM robustness to fast fading and narrow-band cochannel
interference, and makes it possible to achieve even better system spectral efficiency.

Different number of sub-carriers can be assigned to different users, in view to support

differentiated Quality of Service (QoS), i.e. to control the data rate and error probability
individually for each user.

OFDMA resembles code division multiple access (CDMA) spread spectrum, where users

can achieve different data rates by assigning a different code spreading factor or a
different number of spreading codes to each user.

OFDMA can be seen as an alternative to combining OFDM with time division multiple

access (TDMA) or time-domain statistical multiplexing, i.e. packet mode communication.
Low-data-rate users can send continuously with low transmission power instead of
using a "pulsed" high-power carrier. Constant delay, and shorter delay, can be
achieved.

OFDMA can also be described as a combination of frequency domain and time domain
multiple access, where the resources are partitioned in the time-frequency space, and
slots are assigned along the OFDM symbol index as well as OFDM sub-carrier index.

OFDMA is considered as highly suitable for broadband wireless networks, due to

advantages including scalability and MIMO-friendliness, and ability to take advantage of
channel frequency selectivity.

In spectrum sensing cognitive radio, OFDMA is a possible approach to filling free radio

frequency bands adaptively. Timo A. Weiss and Friedrich K. Jondral of the University of
Karlsruhe proposed a spectrum pooling system in which free bands sensed by nodes
were immediately filled by OFDMA subbands.
USAGE

OFDMA is used in:

 the mobility mode of the IEEE 802.16 Wireless MAN standard, commonly

referred to as WiMAX,
 the IEEE 802.20 mobile Wireless MAN standard, commonly referred to as MBWA,
 the downlink of the 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) fourth generation mobile
broadband standard. The radio interface was formerly named High Speed OFDM
Packet Access (HSOPA), now named Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-
UTRA).
 the Qualcomm Flarion Technologies Mobile Flash-OFDM
 the now defunct Qualcomm/3GPP2 Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB) project,
intended as a successor of CDMA2000, but replaced by LTE.

OFDMA is also a candidate access method for the IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area
Networks (WRAN). The project aims at designing the first cognitive radio based
standard operating in the VHF-low UHF spectrum (TV spectrum).

The term "OFDMA" is claimed to be a registered trademark by Runcom

Technologies Ltd., with various other claimants to the underlying technologies through
patents.
SPMA

Space-Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is a channel access method based on

creating parallel spatial pipes next to higher capacity pipes through spatial multiplexing
and/or diversity, by which it is able to offer superior performance in radio multiple
access communication systems. In traditional mobile cellular network systems, the base
station has no information on the position of the mobile units within the cell and
radiates the signal in all directions within the cell in order to provide radio coverage.
This results in wasting power on transmissions when there are no mobile units to reach,
in addition to causing interference for adjacent cells using the same frequency, so
called co-channel cells. Likewise, in reception, the antenna receives signals coming from
all directions including noise and interference signals. By using smart
antenna technology and differing spatial locations of mobile units within the cell, space-
division multiple access techniques offer attractive performance enhancements.
The radiation pattern of the base station, both in transmission and reception, is adapted
to each user to obtain highest gain in the direction of that user. This is often done
using phased array techniques.

In GSM cellular networks, the base station is aware of the mobile phone's position by
use of a technique called "timing advance" (TA). The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
can determine how distant the Mobile Station (MS) is by interpreting the reported TA.
This information, along with other parameters, can then be used to power down the
BTS or MS, if a power control feature is implemented in the network. The power control
in either BTS or MS is implemented in most modern networks, especially on the MS, as
this ensures a better battery life for the MS and thus a better user experience (in that
the need to charge the battery becomes less frequent). This is why it may actually be
safer to have a BTS close to you as your MS will be powered down as much as possible.
For example, there is more power being transmitted from the MS than what you would
receive from the BTS even if you are 6 m away from a mast. However, this estimation
might not consider all the MS's that a particular BTS is supporting with EM radiation at
any given time.
REFERENCE:

 Viterbi, A. CDMA: Principles of Spread Spectrum Communication Addison-Wesley

Wireless Communications Series, 1995
 Pickholtz, R. L., Schilling, D. L., and Milstein, L. B. “Theory of Spread-Spectrum
Communications—A Tutorial” IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. COM30, no. 5, May
1982, pp 855-884.
 Pickholtz, R. L., Schilling, D. L., and Milstein, L. B. Revisions to “Theory of
Spread-Spectrum Communications—A Tutorial” IEEE Trans. Commun., vol.
COM32, no. 2, Feb 1984, pp 211-212
 Olenewa, J. & Ciampa, M. (2007). Wireless# Guide to Wireless Communications
(2nd ed.). Boston, United States: THOMSON COURSE TECHNOLOGY
 Olenewa, J. & Ciampa, M. (2007). Wireless# Guide to Wireless Communications
(2nd ed.). Boston, United States: THOMSON COURSE TECHNOLOGY
 K. Fazel and S. Kaiser,  Multi-Carrier and Spread Spectrum Systems: From OFDM
and MC-CDMA to LTE and WiMAX, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2008,  ISBN
978-0-470-99821-2.