NAME: ADEGOKE TENIOLA BABAJIDE

COURSE CODE: PEME 5451 LITERATURE REVIEW

COURSE NAME: WASTE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL
LECTURER: PROF P.T WILLIAMS
STUDENT ID NO: 200583084

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Life Cycle Analysis for Recycling

As the basic knowledge of environment increases, many industries and businesses

are judging how their activities affect the environment. The Society as a whole is
bothered about the continual depletion of natural resources and degradation of the
environment. Establishment and businesses have responded to this situation by
creating clean products using clean technology. The main issues being examined are
clean products and clean technology, this is the main reason why many
establishments and companies are minimising their impact on the environment.
Many corporations have gone beyond mere compliance of laws and this was
achieved by following various pollution prevention strategies and environmental
management softwares to improve environmental performance. One of these
softwares is the LCA (Life Cycle Analysis). This takes into consideration the entire life
cycle of a product (Curran 1996).

It is a “cradle to grave” approach for evaluating various industrial systems;

The term “cradle to grave” means assembling of raw- materials for production to
final disposal or recycling. LCA considers all stages of production starting from the
raw materials to finished products for disposal or recycling and it clearly shows that
each stage compliments each other. LCA considers the impact of each stage of
production in a product cycle thus giving a clearer view of environmental aspects of
product or technology and serves as a decision making tool in product or process
selection. The diagram below shows the potential life cycle stages considered in an
LCA and the possible input/output measured. There are so many types of LCA
regardless of the system being used for example the retrospective and the
prospective LCA (Ekevall et al 2005) where the retrospective LCA describes the
environmental process and evaluates the environmental Load of the process
throughout the whole phase. Prospective LCA shows how relevant systems flow
might cause adjustment giving changes in management choices. Other types of LCA
are stand-alone (Baumann & Tillman 2004), accounting-type or change oriented.

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Inputs Outputs
Raw Material Acquisition
Atmospheric Emissions

Raw materials Manufacturing Water Borne Wastes

Use/Reuse and Maintenance

Energy Solid waste

Co-Products
Recycle/Waste Management
Other release
Other waste

Life Cycle Stages Culled from EPA 1995

History of Life Cycle Analysis

It began in 1960 where many efforts came into place to carry out similar LCA analysis
though they were given other names like eco-balance, resource and environmental
profile analysis (REPA), integrated environmental Analysis and environmental
Profiles (Baumann & Tillman 2004). There was a growing concern in the late sixities
and seventies about the “throw away” society and lots of LCA were carried on
Packaging product.
The first Life cycle Analysis was carried out by the Midwest Research Institute
for Coca-Cola Company in 1969-1970. Motivated by consumer concern in packaging,
Coca-Cola was introduced in conducting a study on the environmental, energy,
material effects of the whole packaging production of other options to their
beverage cans. This research was not only limited in America but also carried out in
other parts of Europe where studies were carried out on packaged products and the
environmental; energy effects of these products were considered (Baumann &

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Tillman 2004). As more research were carried out, Policy Makers with waste
management and Packaging industry became more away of LCA; one of the major
draw backs of LCA was that it wasn’t consistent with other studies and their
calculations were more rigorous as it was done without computers. By 1990,
methods of carrying out LCA became more unified and as more LCA were carried
out, there was a desire to be able to compare results however different methods
means that different among experts means different results on the same LCA
product but this differences was not because of alternative production and waste
disposal system (Russell Ekvall & Baumann 2005). The only option was to carry out
LCA in a standard manner. In 1991, the Society of Environmental Toxicology and
chemistry (SETAC) had a conference on Life cycle Analysis. It was not until 1992 that
this methodology was then called “Life Cycle Analysis” (Baumann & Tillman 2004). It
was in 1993 that SETAC published its first “Modus Operandi” that an LCA must
contain goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment and
improvement assessment (Consoli et al 1993). After the publication of LCA standard
of operation, International Organization for Standardization gave a standard method
of carrying out Life Cycle Assessments. The 14040 series was released in 1997 and
then updated in 2006. (ISO 2006a).

LIMITIATION OF LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS

Like any other method, LCA has its own limitations and they can be outlined as
follows:
1. It doesn’t consider the scale of production systems
2. It cannot evaluate if it can be carried out over a long period of time or it should
be carried out at all
3. It doesn’t determine which product or process is cost effective or is the best
4. It is resource and time consuming
5. Using impacts as a factor for global outcomes isn’t a good indicator since we
don’t have a regional guideline that determines the amount of environmental
impact that is acceptable for a particular system.
6. There is little information about where and when emission can take place and
therefore LCA doesn’t consider local impact

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 International Organisation for Standardisation
Based on the work done by SETAC, The ISO was developed further and there was
an agreement on the series of standards for a LCA to be carried and they include
(McDougall et al 2009) they are
1. ISO 14040 environmental management: Life cycle assessment principles and
frame work (ISO1997)
2. ISO 14041 environmental management: Life cycle assessment – Goal and
scope definition and life cycle inventory analysis (ISO1998)
3. ISO 14042 environmental management:- Life cycle assessment- Life cycle
impact assessment (ISO/FDIS 1999)
4. ISO 14043 environmental management:- Life cycle assessment- Life cycle
interpretation.

Life Assessment occurs in four phases:

1. Goal Definition and Scoping

2. Inventory Analysis
3. Impact Assessment
4. Interpretation

Goal Definition and Scoping: Here the scope of the product or process is defined and
described. The boundaries and backgrounds are established on which the
assessment is to be made.

Inventory Analysis: Inputs and Outputs are counted based on material usage, energy,
water and environmental release (for example air emissions, solid waste disposal
and waste water discharges)

Impact Assessment: the effects of the usage of the energy, material and water on
the environment is taken into consideration and the release of wastes noted in the
inventory analysis

Interpretation: The results of inventory analysis and impact assessment are then
checked to select the product, technology or service with a sound discernment of
the unknown and assumptions used to derive results.

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 Goal and
definition of
scope

Inventory Interpretation
Analysis

Impact
Assessment

PHASES OF LCA (CULLED FROM ISO 1997)

Importance of LCA

LCA allows decision makers to choose product or processes that have the lowest of
impact on the environment. This with other factors such as cost and performance data
enables decision makers to choose the best product or process (US EPA 2006). Other
importance of LCA includes

1. LCA data identifies the transfer of environmental impact from one medium to
another (for example removing air emissions by forming a waste water effluent
instead) or from one life cycle to another (from use and recycling of product to the
raw material stage). If an LCA was not performed, this transfer will not be spotted.
2. It enables the gradual assessment of the environmental effects of a particular
product.
3. Evaluates various environmental decisions linked to one or more products or process
in order to win stake holders support (community, state) for a particular process or
product).
4. Measures environmental release to air, water and land relating to each life cycle or
major contributing process.

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5. Examines the human and ecological effects of consumption of raw materials and
release to the environment in the local community, state, country and the world.
6. Considers the health and ecological impacts between two or more rival product and
recognises the impact of a particular product or process.
7. Recognises impacts to one or more specific areas of environmental concern.

Life Cycle Analysis of Thermoplastic Recycling

So many raw materials after production are then recycled back into the production
process and are used for reproduction for example paper, glass, plastics e.t.c (Paul T
Williams). A process of particular interest is the thermoplastics. About 80% of
plastics produced all over the world are made up of thermoplastics. The common
recycled ones are Polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl chlorides).
The life cycle analysis of recycled production were compared with that of virgin
production of thermoplastics and their environmental impacts using appropriate
research methods and in accordance with data base provided. (Garrain et al 2007).

Goal and Scope: Their goal was to perform life cycle assessement of products and
processes required for material recycling of thermoplastic material from industrial
waste. The results were then evaluated using data given by recycling machinery
manufacturers and bibliographical data from other authors.

Life Cycle Inventories

Real data was used in carrying out the effects of plastic recycling on the
environment by applying LCA methods to products and processes used in mechanical
plastic recycling from industrial scrap for extrusion of black HDPE (high density
Polyethylene).

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FLOW CHART OF HDPE recycling culled from Garrain 2007.

Bibliographical Data

He used bibliographical data from the following authors

1. White et al: He carried out a LCI on Integerated management of solid waste. He took into
account the input and output of recycling methods in order to know their environmental
impact. Their data originated from internal reports (Deuroll T 1990) of a recycling plant,
which gave detailed information in mass and energy flows in recycling rigid HDPE bottles.
2. Perugini et al: As a follow up to the previous study, he then released a report on life cycle
analysis of mechanical recycling of plastic waste. This report covered a set of Italian firms
which made use of mechanical recycling of plastic waste and then compared other
environmental methods. For example incineration, land filling. The impacts of other post
recycling methods were then evaluated such as low temperature pyrolysis and other high
pressure hydrogenation. Their results showed that this data are more environmental
friendly than other accoustomed ones. The inventory data which was collected by the data
was related to the material and energy flows of recycled PET and polyethylene from plastic
waste.

Manufacturers of recycling machinery

The recycling process is made up of the following
1. Fragmenting and shredding the waste
2. The waste is then heated above its melting point
3. Extrusion: in plastic extrusion, it is a manufacturing process in which raw material plastic
is melted and forms a continuous profile.

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 4. Pelletizing the plastic

In this case study, energy consumption figures were gotten from machinery manufacturers.
The author got specific consumption figures from production rates and required power inputs. The
plastic waste goes through the line as films or bales and comes out clean, dry bits prepared for
extrusion. Technical data for extrusion and pelletizing were obtained from Austrian manufacturer
Artec.

Production of Virgin HDPE

The data concerning manufacture of HDPE came from the database found in simapro 7.0 impact
assessment software

1. Buwal 250(Habersetter K.et al 1998)

2. Eco invest ( Hirschier 2004)
3. Plastic Europe (Association of plastic manufacturers in Europe) (Boustead I.2005)

Impact Assessment

Table 1 showing environmental impact Culled from Garrain et al 2007

The table above describes the environmental impact of each of the processes after collection of
data. The method used for impact assessment was CML 2 base line 2000 which was developed by
the Institute of Environmental Sciences in Leiden (Holland). The difference in environmental impact
between that from machinery industry and those from the recycling was because the recycling firms
have enough equipment to recycle plastics with high melting point than those of HDPE (Virgin
production). A recycling plant also has a line solely for recycling HPDE with highly efficient shredding
and washing methods. When comparing the result of table with white et al it was revealed that
their time of result was back in 1990 this was the era when plastic recycling was not as efficient as it
used to be now.

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 Ecological Profile of recycling 1kg of HDPE culled from data source by Garrain et al 2007

Ecological Profiling of Virgin Production vs Recycled production culled from

Garrison et al 2007.

The results clearly show that over the years, plastic recycling has been optimised
leading to a reduction in its environmental impact. This gives more support to
bringing up new recycled product for sustainable development.

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References
1. Baumann, H., & Tillman, A. (2004). The hitch hiker's guide to LCA: An orientation
in life cycle assessment methodology and application. Lund, Sweden:
Studentlitteratur AB.
2. Boustead I. Eco-profiles of the European Plastic Industry. HDPE Extrusion. A report
for Plastics Europe (APME), 2005.
3. Boyd, J. (2008). FROM OCEAN TO MARKET: THE LIFE CYCLE BIOPHYSICAL IMPACTS OF
THE SOUTHWEST NOVA SCOTIA LIVE LOBSTER INDUSTRY. Available:
http://www.fcrn.org.uk/researchLib/theses/Boyd_2008FromOceantoMarket.pdf. Last
accessed 12th Dec 2010.
4. Consoli, F., Allen, D., Boustead, I., Fava, J., Franklin, W., Jensen, A. A., et al (Eds.).
(1993). Guidelines for life-cycle assessment: A "Code of Practice" (1st ed.). Pensacola,
FL & Brussels BE: Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC).
5. Curran, M. (2006). LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT principles and practise. Available:
http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/lcaccess/pdfs/600r06060.pdf. Last accessed 10th Dec
2010.
6. Curran, M.A. (ed) 1996. Environmental Life Cycle Assessment. ISBN 0-07-015063-
X, McGraw-Hill
7. Deurloo T. Assessment of environmental impact of plastic recycling in P&G
packaging. Technical report of Procter&Gamble, 1990.
8. Ekvall, T., & Finnveden, G. (2001). Allocation in ISO 14041--a critical review.
Journal of Cleaner Production, 9(3), 197-208.
9. Ekvall, T., Tillman, A., & Molander, S. (2005). Normative ethics and methodology
for life cycle assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production, 13(13-14), 1225-1234.
10. Garrain,D,Martinez,P., Vidal,R. and Belles M.. (2007). LCA of thermoplastic
recycling. Available: http://www.lcm2007.org/paper/168.pdf. Last accessed 9th
Dec 2010
11. Habersatter K., Fecker I., Dall’aqua S., Fawer M., Falscheer F., Förster R., Maifeller
C., Ménard M., Reusser L., Som C., Stahel U., Zimmermann P. Life cycle
inventories for packaging, BUWAL(SAEFL, Swiss Agency for the Environment),
Environmental series n.250 (Buwal 250), 1998.
12. Hischier R. Life cycle inventories of packaging & graphical papers, Part II. Plastics.
Ecoinvent report n.11, 2004.
13. McDougall, R. White, P., Frank, M. and Hindle, P. (2009). Integrated Solid waste
management:A life cycle Inventory. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell science ltd. p88-
93.
14. Perugini F., Mastellone M.L., Arena U. A Life Cycle Assessment of Mechanical and
Feedstock Recycling Options for Management of Plastic Packaging Wastes,
Environmental Progress, Vol. 24,n.2, pp 137-154, 2005.
15. White P.R., Franke, M., Hindle, P. Integrated solid waste management. A life
cycle inventory. Ed: Blackie Academic & Professional, ISBN 0-7514-0046-7, 1995

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16. Williams, P. T. 2005. Waste treatment and disposal (2nd edition). Chichester:
John Wiley & Sons.

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