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IJEBR
16,1 Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic
female business owners
Discrimination and social support
58
Marilyn J. Davidson and Sandra L. Fielden
Manchester Business School, The University of Manchester,
Received September 2008
Revised April 2009 Manchester, UK, and
Accepted June 2009
Azura Omar
Department of Business Administration,
International Islamic University of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to focus on the positive and negative effects of gender and
ethnicity in relation to discrimination and the problems encountered in accessing social support
(including emotional and instrumental support).
Design/methodology/approach – Qualitative data were collected through in-depth interviews
with 40 Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic (BAME) female small business owners based in north west
England. The main aims and objectives of the study were to: investigate the discriminatory
experiences of BAME female small business owners related to their gender and ethnicity; and to
identify the forms (formal and informal) and types (emotional/instrumental) of social support available
in relation to their entrepreneurial activities that enabled them to cope with and overcome, the
discrimination they may encounter.
Findings – Over half of the respondents in the study had experienced discriminations because of
their gender, ethnic background or both. This was attributed to a number of factors, including
stereotypical images of specific ethnic cultures, religions and practices. Many respondents reported
difficulties in accessing different types of formal social support, e.g. formal business and financial
support. Informal support by respondents’ families was reported as a key source of both emotional and
instrumental.
Research limitations/implications – This paper is just a starting point for this area of research
and, because the sample covers women from a variety of BAME backgrounds, it is not possible to
generalize the findings to the wider population of BAME women. However, it does give an indication
of what issues need to be considered in the provision of instrumental support for BAME women small
business owners.
Practical implications – The paper shows that a key element in the development of a strategy for
addressing the needs of the BAME female small business owners is the necessity to appropriately
re-design mainstream business support systems and financial services, in order to provide these
women effective access to formal social support.
Originality/value – The experiences of BAME small business owners have received little attention
and this paper offers a unique insight into the relationship between social support, gender, ethnicity
and business ownership.
International Journal of Keywords Black people, Ethnic minorities, Women, Business formation, Discrimination,
Entrepreneurial Behaviour &
Research United Kingdom
Vol. 16 No. 1, 2010
pp. 58-80
Paper type Research paper
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1355-2554
DOI 10.1108/13552551011020072 The authors wish to thank the European Social Fund for supporting this study.
Introduction BAME female
Over the years, the academic literature investigating the small firm sector has covered business owners
a range of disciplinary perspectives, such as start-up patterns, characteristics and
motivation of entrepreneurs (Fielden and Davidson, 2005). However, until very recently
the UK literature almost universally regarded business owners as White males, with
female business owners of any background receiving much less attention (Carter et al.,
2001). Further, it is only in the last few years that recognition has been given to the 59
diverse cultural backgrounds of Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic (BAME) business
owners (female or male) or the different barriers they experience. As Kwong et al.
(2009) assert, ethnic minority female entrepreneurs are a special type of female
entrepreneur, rather than a special type of ethnic entrepreneur. Taking into account the
gaps in the current UK research literature on female BAME entrepreneurs, this paper
examines more fully the experiences, problems and barriers, facing a cross-section of
40 female BAME small business owners based in the north west of England. More
specifically, the paper looks at:
.
discriminatory experiences related to their gender and ethnicity; and
.
the forms (formal and informal) and types (emotional/instrumental) of social
support available to BAME female small business owners in their
entrepreneurial activities.
Throughout the paper, the key dimensions covered involve identifying the similarities
and differences between BAME female small business owners from different ethnic
categories, as well as making comparisons with their White counterparts.
Sampling
With an aim of including as wide a cross section of different ethnic backgrounds as
possible, potential interviewees were initially contacted through various business
support organizations, including Business Links, the Asian Business Federation, Wai
Yin Women Society and the Muslim Development Service. Personal contacts, referrals
from other individuals (or gatekeepers) (Tashokkori and Teddlie, 1998; Dhaliwall,
2000) and the use of snowballing techniques were also employed to access participants.
Snowballing is often used to obtain a sample when there is no adequate list that can be
used as a sampling frame (Gilbert, 1993). The approach involves contacting a member
of the population of interest and/or organizations in relation to the subject area with
known contacts and asking whether they know anyone with the required
characteristics. These individuals are interviewed and are asked to refer the study
team to other potential interviewees: again these individuals are interviewed and the
same questions asked. This form of non-probability sampling is not without
limitations (May, 1997). Snowball sampling, for example, may lead researchers to
collect data that reflects a particular perspective, thereby omitting the voices of others
who are not part of a network of contacts. This approach to sampling was, however,
regarded as the most appropriate in light of the exploratory nature of this study, the
sensitive nature of the subject matter and the absence of a known existing sample
frame (Creswell, 2003; Gilbert, 1993).
Sample
A total of 40 BAME female small business owners based in the north west of England
were interviewed in this study, which included 17 South Asians (eight Pakistani, four
Indian, three Bangladeshi and two Kashmiri), 14 Black women (four African, seven
Afro-Caribbean and three “African British Afro-Caribbean”, an identification given by
the women themselves), four Chinese and five Middle Easterners. In the interests of
confidentiality, sample demographics will not be broken down further than the level of
“South Asian” and “Black”. However, interview quotes will be attributed to the sub
group to which participants identified themselves as belonging to.
The average age of the BAME female business owners in the study was 39 years
old. Just over half (n ¼ 21) were married, 11 were single, eight were divorced (including
one widow) and two were cohabiting. All but ten of the women interviewed had
children, with South Asian women having the highest mean number at 2.9 children
compared to women from other ethnic backgrounds, and just over half of all those
IJEBR interviewed had dependent children. There seemed to be ethnic differences with
16,1 regards to the marital status of the participants, i.e. a higher proportion of South Asian
women were married compared to Black British women. Additionally, a higher
proportion of Black British women identified themselves as lone parent compared to
women from other ethnic groups.
Overall, 13 participants had no previous work experience, 15 had white-collar jobs
64 and 11 had professional or managerial positions. A total of ten participants, including
five South Asians and three Black British, were still employed and intended to finish
their employment once their businesses were “sufficiently big”. Four South Asian and
six Black participants had resigned from paid employment to pursue their business
ambitions. In contrast, four participants had left their old jobs for family reasons,
indicating that their previous jobs did not allow the flexibility that they wanted to
combine work and family responsibilities. Table I details the demographic business
profile of participants.
Analysis
Qualitative data analysis is unique in that data analysis is not a discrete stage of the
research process. Instead, qualitative data analysis is an ongoing process that occurs
simultaneously with data collection and remains throughout the life of the project
(Marshall and Rossman, 1998). In this study, qualitative data analysis began with the
first interview and continued to the final stage of the study. During the interviewing
process, data analysis was one of the intervening factors that influenced subsequent
interviews, as the researchers continually developed new ideas and understanding of
Types of discrimination:
Gender 1 1 1 – 3 Table II.
Racial 5 2 – 2 9 Discriminatory
Gender and racial 4 6 – – 10 experiences: breakdown
None 7 5 3 3 18 based on ethnic groups
IJEBR Indeed, as it is evident from many of the quotes presented in this paper these are often
16,1 intrinsically linked.
By far, the biggest complaints made by the interviewees revolved around the issue
of having to deal with prejudicial attitudes of others based on gender and ethnic
stereotyping (n ¼ 17). These women for example noted that some people automatically
assumed that they “lacked education” or were “uneducated” because of the colour of
66 their skins and ethnic backgrounds:
To be a woman and to be Black as well amounts to invisibility, lack of credibility and poor
education. This is not how I see myself but how I feel other people see me. When I deal with
people for the first time, I can sense that they are not confident in my ability. I need to prove to
them that I can do the job before they respect me. Of course, nobody says anything, but the
body language tells me all that I need to know (African female part-time business owner).
Formal support
The majority of BAME female business owners interviewed (n ¼ 25) did not use
formal business support organizations for advice, information, support and financial
assistance. These findings seemed in line with the few studies that have focused
previously on South Asian women (e.g. Dhaliwall, 2000; Dawe and Fielden, 2005) and
men (e.g. Ram and Sparrow, 1993; Ram et al., 2002) in self-employment in the UK.
Indeed, only a quarter of those interviewed were members of business network
IJEBR organizations, eight (most of whom were Black British) had approached business
16,1 advisory services, while a further eight employed professional help in the form of
accountants and business consultants.
Studies on BAME women working in other economic sectors (see Bell and Nknomo,
2000; Bhavnani and Coyle, 2000) revealed that, compared to their White female
counterparts, they had fewer, if any role models, were more likely to feel isolated and
70 less likely to have same ethnic and gender mentors. Certainly, a number of our
interviewees, did express the desire to get in contact with other professional women in
business who shared similar heritage, background or skin colour as themselves. This
was particularly apparent for those of African and Afro-Caribbean background, who
asserted that being in contact with “women of colour” would reduce the “feeling of
isolation” and hence, be “more valuable” because their “common background” would
often result in “common” or “shared” experiences:
I feel isolated. It is difficult to find a network that caters for Black businesses and for Black
women. I don’t think there is one in Manchester or Liverpool. I need to be in contact with my
own people because it would be better for me. I don’t think White people can understand what
it means to be Black (African female business owner).
However, for BAME female business owners, finding the “right” support and
networking group was difficult for various reasons. A quarter of the women suggested
that the root of the problem lay with the fact that these organizations failed to
disseminate information about their existence and services on offer. Other interviewees
(n ¼ 12), most of whom were of Black African and Afro-Caribbean backgrounds,
declared that there were “too few business support and networking organizations” that
catered for the “specific needs” of BAME groups in general and BAME female business
owner specifically. They wanted business assistance organizations that catered
specifically for Black women.
For six Muslim interviewees, the complaint about the mainstream business support
and networking organizations rested on the fact that these organizations were not
“culturally sensitive” to the needs of Muslim women. This may reflect the strict code of
conduct that epitomized an Islamic society, i.e. free mixing between women and men is
not encouraged and a relationship between a woman and a man with no blood
relationship and no approved marital intent, should be as minimal and as professional
as possible (Omar and Davidson, 2001).
Informal support
Instead of using formal business support organizations, many of our interviewees
identified their families – both immediate and extended – as important support
structures in their private and business lives. For instance, 15 female business owners
stated that they had received a lot of support from the extended families, which
included their in-laws, uncles, aunties and grandparents. Furthermore, 13 had “very
supportive” spouses and partners, while eight were encouraged by their parents.
Interviewees also relied heavily on their own personal network of friends (n ¼ 10), and
the local community groups (n ¼ 6).
The types of support that interviewees received from their informal support
mechanisms varied from the most personal form of support, including emotional
support such as encouragement (n ¼ 27) and family and child care (n ¼ 14); to the
more professional in nature such as legal advice (n ¼ 4), financial assistance (n ¼ 19)
and asset acquisitions (n ¼ 2). These informal support mechanisms were not only
important but also indispensable. The general consensus amongst our interviewees
was that their “successes as entrepreneurs” were positively and directly related to the
support they had received from their respective support sources:
I owe it to my family. They have been so supportive. They have been behind me 100 percent
and that does give me confidence and comfort to explore new things. For example, when I
decided to take two years off and go travelling, my parents said “Good”. Those experiences
were important because it made me a well- rounded person (African female business owner).
I can’t be a mother and a businesswoman without my in-laws. My children are taken care of
during the day – my mother and sister-in-law is at home now looking after my baby.
(Pakistani female business owner).
Conclusion
The results of this qualitative study reveal strong indications that BAME female
business owners are facing potential problems and barriers related to both their gender
and ethnicity and inadequate social support systems. Indeed, many of the female
business owners we interviewed strongly advocated the importance of such research
aimed at uncovering the problems they faced in their daily lives, in order to enhance
understanding as to what structures would work to help them become successful
entrepreneurs. This was aptly summarized by an African female business owner who
had encountered gender and racial problems:
It is very important to get input from ethnic minorities. I see a lot of “research” about us but
only few really bothered to talk to us, for feedback and views. You cannot help ethnic
IJEBR minorities without first finding out the “real” issues. How can you help us if you don’t know
what our problems are and what type of help we need?
16,1
We believe this study has moved the field forward from earlier studies in a number of
ways. First, it has emphasized the heterogeneity of BAME female business owners and
has highlighted both the similarities and differences between ethnic groups specific to
the UK population in terms of perceived discrimination and social support. The vast
76 majority of previous research into the experiences of BAME women has been
undertaken in the USA and Canada, with very little in the UK. These studies are often
based on different ethnic groupings compared to those found in the UK (e.g. Hispanic),
with different historical and cultural underpinnings. This serves to limit the
transferability of their findings to the UK.
Second, this study also demonstrates that the interface between gender and racial
discrimination is not a clear one and may vary across situations. There are some
instances when racial discrimination will be the dominant factor and others where
gender will be the key factor. Another influencing factor is that perceptions of
discrimination are frequently viewed through a cultural and religious lens, perhaps
indicating that “discrimination” is a Western concept that does not directly translate
into all BAME cultures. Almost half of the women interviewed did not report gender or
racial discrimination, yet their reasons for this tend to arise out of an isolationist
approach to business operation, i.e. only operating within their own ethnic group.
Although this is positive for the women involved, it may be argued that such isolation
results from gender and racial discrimination, rather than from an absence of it.
Finally, we suggest that this study is just a starting point in the UK, demonstrating
not only the need for future research into BAME female business owners but providing
evidence that such research cannot treat BAME female business owners as a
homogeneous group. The difference in needs and experiences between BAME female
business owners is as important, if not more so, than the similarities. Furthermore, the
way in which BAME women experience discrimination may be different to the way in
which White women experience discrimination. The interaction between gender and
ethnicity appears to generate different perceptions of discrimination than those
generated by gender alone - some more positive, other more negative. Thus, the idea of
a double negative for gender and ethnicity is not necessarily accurate in the sense that
they may not be cumulative factors. In order to explore this issue fully, further large
scale, comparative research is essential to establish an accurate picture of the specific
issues of discrimination and social support systems, which are responsible for
inhibiting the growth of entrepreneurship among women from different ethnic
backgrounds.
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IJEBR About the authors
Marilyn J. Davidson has published over 150 academic articles and 19 books, e.g. Shattering the
16,1 Glass Ceiling – The Woman Manager (with C.L. Cooper); Women in Management: Current
Research Issues Volume II (edited with R. Burke); The Black and Ethnic Minority Woman
Manager – Cracking the Concrete Ceiling (short listed for the Best Management Book of the
Year). She is co-director of the Centre for Equality and Diversity at Work and Chartered
Occupational Psychologist. Recent research projects have included: national study of career
80 development and good practice for women and men in the UK retail industry; sexual harassment
of BME women professionals; sexual harassment in the workplace; barriers facing BME female
and male entrepreneurs; and mentoring as a career development tool in female nurses.
Sandra L. Fielden is a Chartered Occupational Psychologist, an Associate Fellow of the
British Psychological Society, and a former member of the British Academy. She is co-director of
the Centre for Equality and Diversity at Work and her research interests are in entrepreneurship,
equality and diversity, women in management, coaching and mentoring, and sexual harassment.
Sandra Fielden is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: Sandra.Fielden@mbs.ac.uk
Azura Omar is an Assistant Professor at the International Islamic University of Malaysia.
She holds a PhD from University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST),
UK, MBA (Hons.) from Boston University, USA and BA (Hons.) from Lancaster University, UK.
She has research interests in diversity and management, small business management, work
psychology and qualitative researching.