Académique Documents
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Submitted by:
MANOJ GOYAL
(Roll No. DYPM Phil 0701006)
Research Guide:
Dr. R. Gopal
Director
Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil University,
Department of Business Management
Sector 4, Plot No. 10,
CBD Belapur, Navi Mumbai. 400 614
March 2009
Relationship between
Psychological Contract and
Personality:
A Study of Employees of Selected
Government Organisations / PSUs in
India
DECLARATION
Place: Mumbai
Date: 27.03.09 --sd--
(MANOJ GOYAL)
Signature of the Student
CONTENTS
Page
Chapter No. TITLE
No.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
Chapter - 1 INTRODUCTION 9
APPENDICES:
1
This definition lay stress on perception by an individual regarding
employment relationship with his/her employer and is widely accepted by
researchers. Since it is the perception by individual employee which
affects his/ her work behavior, therefore, ‘psychological contracts’ are
subjective and idiosyncratic in nature.
2
Post liberalization, the Indian economy has entered into a fast track
orbit of development and a lot of progress has been made in the past one
and the half decade. It has largely been possible due to change in
government’s role from “doer” to “facilitator”. Due to all round economic
development and rise in per capita income, the pressure on public sector
organization to deliver high quality, customer oriented services has
increased. In term of personnel management, this leads to an increased
interest in, among other things, performance management of PSU
employees. Due to the fact that the government organizations are still the
major employer in India; and with changing environment, citizens now
expect government employees to be more responsive and efficient. The
individuals employed in government organization have been focused for
the purpose of current study.
3
5) To investigate the relationship between the type of
psychological contracts and the personality type of
government employees.
4
employees in each unit. Each office unit was sent 25 sets of
questionnaires to be distributed randomly in those office units. In all 425
questionnaires were distributed. Out of these total 173 responses were
received. 24 responses were rejected being incomplete and balance 149
responses were taken as sample for the purpose of analyses.
1) Covering letter
2) section 1- for general and demographic data
3) section 2- Psychological Contract Inventory (PCI)
4) section 3- Big Five Inventory (BFI)
5
4) There is no effect of age on the type of psychological
contract of government employees, which is primarily
relational in nature in Indian context.
6
individualistic rather than based on collective agreements. This is reflected
in subjective nature of psychological contract of employees. If HR
managers want to be effective in their role, they should take into account
this subjectivity instead of believing the generally agreed upon views on
what is important to employees in general. Therefore, the most enduring
and challenging task for HR managers is how to use inducements in order
to motivate employees to make desired contributions. Employees’
conception of their employment relationships does have a powerful
influence on the contributions made by them to the organizations.
Specifically the employment relationship is influenced by following factors:
7
relationship between personality and psychological contract will help in
selection and placement of employees with desired personality traits that
are more likely to result in desired type of psychological contract
(relational or transactional as per job requirement) to achieve minimal
contract violation and subsequently enhanced performance of the
organization.
The limitation of this study has been its focus only on government
organizations / PSUs. Since the government jobs in India provides lifetime
jobs and well defined career path irrespective of individual performance,
the psychological contract were found to be predominantly ‘relational’ in
nature. This fact has come into way of getting more generalisable relation
between personality and the type of psychological contract. In view of this,
it is recommended to repeat the study including the employees of private
sectors also.
8
CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION
9
nature. Therefore it is an individual level phenomenon and could be affected
by individual difference variables.
1.4 One of the important individual level factors, which is used to differentiate a
individual is his/her personality. The personality refers to all those
fundamental traits or characteristics of the person that endure over time and
that account for consistent pattern of responses to everyday situation.
Personality traits supposedly account for the what, why and how of human
functioning.
1.6 Post liberalization, Indian economy has witnessed all round growth. With
this, the employment opportunities in private sector has increased manifold.
But, however, jobs offered by government organizations (Central, State and
Local Governments, P.S.U.s etc.) still form a major chunk of employment in
India. In the changing environment, citizens now expect the government
employees to be more responsive and efficient. Keeping this in view, it has
been decided to limit the focus of current study to persons employed in
selected government organizations / PSUs.
10
1.8 Without question, the framework of ‘Psychological contract’ has helped
deepening of understanding of how the employment relationship functions
on day-to-day basis and as such provides HR managers useful insight of
this relationship. The present research into employee’s personality and their
psychological contract will help HR professionals to better manage the
employment relationships and keep a healthy HR environment in the
organizations. The knowledge about ‘psychological contract’ held by
employees will help organizations to tailor their incentives according to what
their employees value and expect to keep them motivated and satisfied in
order to extract maximum performance out of them. The knowledge of
linkages between ‘personality’ and ‘psychological contract’ will facilitate in
selection and placement of right kind of people at right place that is more
likely to result in desired type of psychological contract to achieve minimal
violation and breach of contract and subsequent enhanced performance.
11
CHAPTER – 2
12
2.1.3 A general description of a contract is the belief in mutual obligations
existing between two parties. The essence of contracts is promises
about the future. A starting point in thinking about psychological
contracts is to look at the employment contract and, in particular, the
gaps and vagueness of what is written and agreed in the signing of an
employment contract. Almost all employment contracts can be
considered as incomplete as the employer cannot specify in advance all
the exchanges that the contract might cover. The longer the employment
lasts, the more obvious and inevitable is the incompleteness of the initial
contract. It is not, therefore, realistic to expect completeness in such
agreement. Employees faced with uncertainty fill in the blanks with
interpretations, guesses and estimations and it is these blanks that the
psychological contract fills.
13
2.1.5 The theoretical roots of the psychological contract can be traced to the
work of Blau and Gouldner. Social exchange has been differentiated
from economic exchange. Social exchange refers to relationships that
entail unspecified future obligations. Social exchange (like economic
exchange) generates an expectation of a future return for contributions
but, unlike economic exchange, the exact nature of that return is not
specified. Economic exchange is based on transactions and is short
term. Social exchange is based on an individual trusting that the other
party to the exchange will fairly discharge their obligations in the long
run. Underlying social exchange is the norm of reciprocity. The norm of
reciprocity implies that when one party benefits another, an obligation is
generated on the recipient to reciprocate and s/he is indebted to the
beneficiary until he or she repays that obligation.
14
and personal (idiosyncratic) variables. The consequences of contract
breach have been heavily researched and the outcomes examined can
be grouped into following three categories:
1. Employee obligations and fulfillment
2. Attitudes, and
3. Behaviour.
2.1.10 Further, the employees who reported higher level of contract breach
were more likely to attempt to leave the organizations, to have neglected
their in-job performance; and would be less likely to represent the
organization favourably to outsiders (be less loyal). A positive
relationship between OCB (organizational citizenship behaviour) and
fulfillment of psychological contract has been found.
15
contracts. These two types of contractual relationship have been
described as follows:
Transactional:
Short term, monetisable exchanges
Specific economic conditions as primary incentive (wage
rate)
Limited personal involvement in job
Specific time frame
Commitments limited to well specified conditions
Limited flexibility
Use of existing skills
Unambiguous terms
Relational:
Open ended relationship and time frame
Considerable investment by employees (company skills,
career development) and employers (training)
High degree of mutual interdependence and barriers to exit.
Emotional involvement as well as economic exchange
Whole person relations
Dynamic and subject to change
Pervasive conditions (affects personal life)
Subjective and implicitly understood.
16
variation in psychological contracts across people and firms, as shown in
FIGURE - 2.1.
Performance Terms
17
primarily focused on exchange of work in lieu of money with a specific
and definite description of duties and responsibilities and limited
involvement in organization. This indicates that the employee is
required to perform only a fixed and defined set of duties and to do
only that much which is asked for by the employer. The employer is
obliged to offer adequate compensation to the employee in exchange
of his duties. The employer may or may not offer any training and
development to the employee. The employee has no obligation to
remain with the organization in the long run and would be committed to
work only for a limited period of time. The employer may not guarantee
future employment beyond the limited period of time agreed upon.
18
based on skills and performance. Both employee and employer
contribute to each other’s development. Rewards to workers are based
upon performance and contributions to the organization’s business
success or competitive advantages, particularly in the face of changing
business environment.
2.1.13 Rousseau has further subdivided each of above type into conceptually
homogeneous components in developing a ‘Psychological Contract
Inventory (PCI)’ as shown in FIGURE – 2.2 and described below:
Relational
1) Stability: Employee is obligated to remain with the firm and to do
what is required to keep job. Employer is committed to offer stable
wages and continuous employment.
19
2) Loyalty: Employee is obligated to keep the organization’s interest
above all else and support the firm and be a good organizational
citizen. Employer is committed to well being of its employees and
their families.
Balanced
1) External employability: Employee is obligated to develop
marketable skills whereas the employer is committed for
enhancing employability of its employees for external as well as
internal market.
2) Internal advancement: Career development within an internal
labor market. Employee is obligated to develop skills valued by
current employer. Employer is committed to creating worker
career development opportunities within the firm.
3) Dynamic performance: Employee is obligated to successfully
perform new and more demanding goals, which can vary
frequently in future to help the firm become and remain
competitive. Employer is committed to promote continuous
learning and help employees achieving these varying goals.
Transactional
1) Narrow: Employee is obligated to perform only a fixed or limited
set of duties, for what he or she is paid for. Employer is committed
to offer the worker only limited involvement in the organization,
little or no training or other employee development.
2) Short – term: Employee has no obligation to remain with the firm;
committed to work only for a limited time. Employer offers
employment for only a specific or limited time, is not obligated to
future commitments.
20
BALANCED
TRANSACTIONAL RELATIONAL
Security
Narrow
No Trust Erosion
Uncertainty
TRANSITIONAL
21
Transitional
1) Mistrust: Employee thinks that he received inconsistent and mixed
signals from the firm regarding its intentions; and mistrusts the
firm. Employer has withheld important information from employee
and mistrusts its workers.
2) Uncertainty: Employee is uncertain regarding the nature of his or
her own obligations to the firm. Employer measure assesses the
extent that the employee is uncertain regarding the employer’s
future commitments to him or her.
3) Erosion: Employee expects to receive fewer returns from his or
her contributions to the firm compared to the past; anticipates
continuing declines in the future. Employer has instituted changes
that reduce employee wages and benefits’ eroding quality of work
life compared to previous years.
2.2 PERSONALITY:
2.2.1 The word ‘personality’ derives from Latin word ‘persona’ which means
‘mask’. The study of personality can be understood as the study of
‘masks’ that people wear. These are the personas that people project
and display, but also include the inner parts of psychological
experience, which we collectively call our ‘self’.
22
2.2.2 No two people are exactly the same – not even identical twins. Some
people are anxious, some are risk-taking; some are phlegmatic, some
highly strung; some are confident, some shy; some are quiet and some
loquacious. The issue of differences is fundamental to the study of
personality.
23
they probably also have more in common than unrelated
people.
Second, there is an assumption that knowledge of a person’s
personality will allow prediction of their future behavior.
Third, personality deals with whole person in terms of behavior,
thoughts and feelings.
Fourth, the personality of individual helps them to adjust with
their environment. Some people may adjust well and be
successful in their work and personal lives. Others may adjust
less well and experience mental problems, such as anxiety and
stress, as a result.
Finally, personality is said to be ‘dynamic’, by which is meant
that whilst stable and enduring it is also subject to change over
life of a person.
2.2.6 For most practical purpose, we can think of personality as sum total of
ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others.
‘Personality’ refers to stylistic consistencies in social behavior which
are a reflection of an inner structure and process.
2.2.7 The early work in the structure of personality revolved around attempts
to identify and label enduring characteristics that describe an
individual’s behavior. Those characteristics, when they are exhibited in
a large number of situations, are called ‘personality traits’.
24
2.2.9 The two established trait theories have been that of Hans Eysneck and
Raymond Cattell. However, the most widely used, up-to-date, state of
art theory of personality is that given by Costa & McCrae, known as
Five Factor Model (FFM) or Big-Five. It has proved a robust and
reliable measure and it is in the world of work that OB researchers
have become most interested in the FFM.
2.2.10 Costa and McCrae argue that there are five basic unrelated
dimensions of personality. These Big Five factors are summarized as
under:
Conscientiousness: a tendency to show self-discipline, act
dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than
spontaneous behavior.
Agreeableness: a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative
rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.
Neuroticism: a tendency to experience unpleasant emotions
easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability;
sometimes called emotional instability.
Openness to Experience: appreciation for art, emotion,
adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, and curiosity.
Extraversion: energy, positive emotions, surgency, and the
tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others.
The above factors are also referred to as the OCEAN or CANOE models
of personality.
25
represent personality at the broadest level of abstraction. Each bipolar
factor (e.g. Extraversion vs. Introversion) summarizes several more
specific facets, which, in turn, subsumes a large number of even more
specific traits.
2.2.12 Several rating instruments have been developed to measure the Big-
Five dimensions. The most comprehensive instrument has been
developed by Costa & McCrae. Originally they developed a personality
questionnaire to assess just three factors – Neuroticism, Extraversion
and Openness – hence the label NEO-PI. Costa & McCrae later
revised this instrument to include the factors of Agreeableness and
Conscientiousness – and it was called the NEO-PI-R.
2.2.14 The NEO PI–R is a highly regarded and extensively used personality
inventory and have shown substantial internal consistency, temporal
stability, and convergent and discriminant validity against spouse and
peer ratings.
2.2.15 However, for many research applications, the NEO PI-R is rather
lengthy, and therefore a number of shorter instruments have been
developed and are commonly used. One such established and widely
used instrument is 44 items Big Five Inventory (BFI) developed by
John & Shrivastava (1999). The average alpha reliability of the BFI
scale is reported to be above 0.80; and mean test-retest reliability of
0.85. Validity evidence includes substantial convergent and divergent
relations with other Big Five instruments as well as with peer ratings.
26
TABLE 2.1: THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY DOMAINS AND THEIR FACETS
1. Warmth
2 Extraversion 2. Gregariousness
3. Assertiveness
4. Activity
5. Excitement Seeking
6. Positive Emotion
1. Fantasy
3 Openness 2. Aesthetics
3. Feelings
4. Actions
5. Ideas
6. Values
1. Trust
4 Agreeableness 2. Straightforwardness
3. Altruism
4. Compliance
5. Modesty
6. Tender mindedness
1. Competence
5 Conscientiousness 2. Order
3. Dutifulness
4. Achievement striving
5. Self-descriptive
6. Deliberation
27
CHAPTER – 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter, few scholarly books, articles and research papers
have been reviewed which are relevant to the current study about
relationship between psychological contract and personality. However it
may be noted, that no book or article could be found on this subject in the
context of Indian organizations. It indicates that the concept of
psychological contract is not very familiar one to the Indian managers,
although it holds a great promise to understand and manage the
employees’ behavior.
BOOK REVIEW
28
3.1.1 Chapter-1 addresses the issue of ‘contractual thinking’. Contracts
are voluntary and the ideal contract details expectations of both the
employee and the employer. However, typical contracts are
incomplete due to bounded rationality. The focus of the author is on
contracts in organizational settings particularly that exist between
workers and the organizations. Contracts are stable and enduring
mental models. Following four basic types of contracts are
introduced and discussed:
1) Psychological Contracts: They are individual beliefs,
shaped by the organizations, regarding terms of an
exchange agreement between individuals and their
organizations.
2) Normative Contracts: They are shared psychological
contracts that emerge when members of a social group,
or work unit hold common beliefs.
3) Implied Contracts: There are interpretations that third
parties (e.g. jurists) make regarding contractual terms.
4) Social Contracts: are broad beliefs in obligations
associated with society’s culture.
29
a mental model that people use to frame events such as promise,
acceptance, and reliance. Since promises that make up contracts
have no objective meaning, two people in the same setting can
have different psychological contract. The chapter then discusses
how the mental model of a contract is created, and how an
individual’s psychological contract is formed. It has been noted that
a series of organizational and individual processes affect the
creation of a psychological contract. There are external factors like
messages and social cues one receive in the organization and the
internal processes like encoding or interpretation of messages,
individual predispositions like cognitive biases & career motives
and decoding by individual to reflect the judgment people make
regarding the standards of behavior that must be met to fulfill
commitments made by themselves and by the organizations. Thus
people think contractually, interpreting statements and behaviors as
promises and commitments to be relied on. But what they
understand these commitments to be is shaped by both personal
beliefs and social processes.
30
2) Use of employee-agents reduces the scope of the
contract, including levels of involvement and
commitment. Employee-principals have greater
flexibility than agents regarding the kinds of contracts
they can create.
3) Use of agents can create confusion in terms of whether
the agent is contracting for him- or herself or for the
organization.
31
transactional and relational. These terms can be thought of as
being at two ends of a contractual continuum. Transactional terms
denote a fair day’s work for a fair day’s pay – focusing on short-
term and monetisable exchanges. Relational contracts focuses on
open-ended relationships involving considerable investments by
both employees and organizations. Further to describe
contemporary contracts, author has used a 2x2 model. Time frame
and performance requirements have emerged as important
contemporary contract features. When these two contract features
are arranged in a 2x2 matrix, four types of contracts emerge as
under:
3.1.6 Chapter-5 discusses the violation of the contract. The basic facts of
contract violation, detailed in this chapter are: 1)Contract violation is
32
common place, 2)Violated contracts lead to adverse reactions by
the injured party and 3)Failure to fulfill a contract need not be fatal
to the relationship. Strictly speaking, contract violation is a failure to
comply with terms of a contract. The violation can take place in
following three forms:-
1) Inadvertent violation occurs due to divergent interpretations
made in good faith.
2) Disruption to contract occurs when there is an inability to
fulfill contract although both parties are willing to keep the
contract.
3) Reneging or breach of contract occurs when one side,
otherwise capable of performing the contract, refuses to do
so.
33
personal predispositions and situational factors. The type of
responses can be shown in Figure- 3.1:
Constructive Destructive
34
i) Internal – Changes that develop in the contract. Parties
themselves modify their understanding of the contract,
known as “contract drift”.
ii) External – External factors also do change the contracts. It
can take two forms: evolutionary accommodation or
revolutionary transformations.
Author has further noted that with the possible exception of one-
shot transaction, all contracts are subject to change.
Organizational
strategy
Interpretation
Human
Resource Psychological
Interpretation
Practices Contract
35
Author has concluded that ‘relational’ contract agreements are
likely in the more stable sectors of the economy, but ‘balanced’
contracts (with their specific performance requirements) are likely
where in-depth, technical, and customer/product knowledge is
required to remain competitive. Transactional agreements serve the
interests of entrepreneurs and those organizations in volatile
industries such as entertainment or sports.
3.1.9 The final chapter of the book outlines the ‘Trends in the New Social
Contract’. Lots of changes are taking place in modern time. Shifts in
broad social understandings regarding employment contracts come
about because of a critical mass of individual and organizational
changes. This chapter deals with the implications of contract
changes for the future, particularly the shifts contract change
introduces in how people and their societies interpret such
concepts as promises, commitments, employment, career, and
organizations. It also discusses the social context or ecology of
contracts, forces for and against the continuation of employment
contracts, and changing standards for fairness. Author has
concluded the chapter with following words, which very aptly
describes the essence of whole book:-
36
have seen, are rich in assumptions as well as facts,
uncertainty as well as predictability. Balancing these makes
it possible for organizations and persons to operate more
effectively. Contracts are a way for both groups to know and
create the future.”
* Furnham Adrian; Personality at Work – the role of individual differences in the workplace; 1995, Routledge,
London.
37
• Longitudinal studies of people at work, and
• Biographical or Case-History Research
Ability Motivation
Personality Occupational
Traits Behavior
Demographic Intelligence
factors
FIG-3.3:
3.2.3 Some deals
Chapter-2 of the with
mainissue
factors
of predicting
Personalityoccupational behavior
testing in the work place.
Personality tests have been used fairly extensively in management
over many years. However, there remains considerable skepticism
in applied circles as to the usefulness of personality tests. This
chapter has presented a comprehensive review of the early, as well
as more recent, literature on personality test correlates of
occupational behavior.
38
predictive and discriminating validity with specific groups. Also the
relationships of personality with academic performance and
learning styles were explored which have clear implications for
vocational guidance.
39
3.2.8 Chapter-7 concentrates on non-personality factors, such as Ability,
Biography and Demographical variables, which have been shown
to be predictive of job success. It is noted that only about ten
percent of the variance appears to be accounted for by ability. A
second, rapidly growing area of research and interest is that of bio-
data. But this method is both a-theoretical and job specific. Finally,
there is increasing evidence of significant sex differences at work.
Author has noted that the gender is important, along with
personality, in understanding behavior at work.
40
beliefs and abilities relate specifically to occupational success has
obvious and immediate implications. The first is to select people for
certain jobs who have desired traits that are correlated with
success. But it may not be possible because of historical; legal or
other limitations. The next best thing to do is to train people
selectively to reach certain standards. Finally, it is suggested, that
the way in which people are rewarded/ compensated at work, too
should take into account the values and preferences of the
employees.
3.2.12 Chapter-11 concludes the book. Author has noted that there is,
indeed, considerable evidence that personality factors are related
to various occupational behaviors. However the role of personality
testing in the business world has been both good and bad for
research. Critics have pointed out that the proliferation and
aggressive marketing of poorly constructed psychometric tests has
frequently overstated and wrongly assessed their predictive value.
Finally author has concluded this final chapter with following hope:
“Hopefully, there will be a growing rapprochement between
occupational and personality psychology, and that well
designed and executed research will reveal not only which
personality factors relate to various occupational behaviours,
but why they do so”
3.2.13 It is amply clear from review of this book is that the ‘personality’ do
affect work behavior of employees in some or other ways. The
process by which behavior is related to personality factor may be
psychological contracting. Psychological contract include process
of exchange between employers and employee, and hence
employee’s behavior at work and psychological contracts is
affected by personality being idiosyncratic and personalized in
41
nature. The present study is an attempt to understand the plausible
link between personality and psychological contracts.
* Conway Neil and Briner Rob B.; Understanding Psychological Contracts at Work : A Critical Evaluation of Theory and
Research ; 2005; Oxford University Press, Oxford .
42
nature of this exchange is based on the perception of each party
rather than what has been written down or explicitly agreed.
Psychological contract is about perception of reciprocal exchange
relationship. Authors have set following three aims of this book.
- To provide a comprehensive review of psychological
contract research and theory.
- To critically evaluate psychological contract research and
theory and suggest fields for future research.
- To consider how the psychological contract can be
practically applied in organization setting.
43
3.3.4 Chapter-3 attempts to define the psychological contract by
reviewing how it has been defined and identifying variations across
definitions offered by researchers. Various definitions of the
concept have been given by various researchers and this chapter
has discussed following key terms and features of psychological
contract found in this diverse range of definitions:
• The beliefs constituting the psychological contract
• The implicit nature of psychological contracts
• The subjective nature of the psychological contract
• Perceived agreement – not actual agreement – is
necessary for psychological contracts
• The psychological contract is about exchange
• The psychological contract is the entire set of an
employee’s beliefs regarding the ongoing exchange
relationship with his/her employer
• The psychological contract is an ongoing exchange
between two parties
• The parties to the psychological contract
• The psychological contract is shaped by the organization
44
contract, evaluates empirical support for the contents of the
psychological contract, considers the factors that form perception of
promises and obligations, and examines how the contents have
been categorized and related to outcomes. The content of the
psychological contract refers broadly to the perception of an
employee about contributions they promise to give to their
employer and what they believe the organization promises in
return. The psychological contract includes many items and these
are categorized or standardized into transactional and relational
contracts. The chapter further discusses the factors which shape
perceptions of employees about psychological contract. These
factors could be outside the organization or within organization.
Further individual level factors like personality and social factors
also affect content of psychological contract. The chapter also
discusses how the contents of the psychological contract may
affect outcomes like job satisfaction, organizational commitments,
job performance and employee turnover.
45
3.3.8 Chapter-6: “Researching the Psychological Contract” considers, in
detail, how research in this field has been done and its limitations. It
is noted that the method of cross- sectional questionnaire survey
has been most commonly used for researching the psychological
contract. The author has concluded that near exclusive use of
survey method has no doubt hampered conceptual, theoretical, and
empirical advance in this area. Authors have suggested to use
more appropriate means – a diary method being one example – of
examining the psychological contract as an event based social
process.
46
psychological contract concept is that, it is a sort of ongoing and
unfolding process. The chapter discusses how existing approaches
do not adequately consider process and some ways in which this
can be done.
47
limitations in psychological contract research and has suggested
ways in which they may be overcome. Authors have noted that:
“we believe that the psychological contract concept
has much to offer but it has been erected on somewhat
shaky conceptual and empirical foundations. …………..It is
our contention that its potential contribution to understanding
behavior at work will never be known if we do not
acknowledge and address some of its fundamental
limitations.”
* Peter Makin, Cary Cooper and Charles Cox; ‘Organizations and the Psychological Contract : Managing People at
Work; 1996; The British Psychological Society; Published in India by Universities Press (India) Limited, 1999.
48
change etc. Each chapter concludes with the section that links back
to the psychological contract and how it relates to the particular
chapter or particular topic.
3.4.3 Authors have noted that in the modern life, we are surrounded by
contractual obligations. The central features of the ‘contracts’,
whilst they differ in terms of their formality and specialty, they all
involve exchange. This perhaps is the essential features of all the
contracts. Contracts do not have to involve the exchange of
physical goods or services; exchange can take place which do not
involve physical things but, at the same time, are important in
affecting the people’s behavior and feelings. The concept of
contract has been extended to psychological domain.
3.4.5 Authors have further contended that the work in organization would
become more effective if the psychological contract was clarified
and agreed in much the same way as in the legal contract.
49
have their initial contact. It is here that initial expectation will be
established and, early in the career, either fulfilled or not. Both
sides will approach the process with their own ideas of what is
expected. What happens and indeed, how it happens can have an
influence on the psychological contract. Authors have described
the various aspects of selection process and career development
and its possible effects on the psychological contract of the
employees and have suggested means to manage these issues
effectively.
50
psychological contract is likely to be ineffective unless both parties
are operating from “I’m OK, You’re OK”.
3.4.9 Chapters-4 & 5 deal with the subject of ‘Motivation’ and ‘Behavioral
Approach to Motivation’. Major classical theories have been
discussed. Perhaps the most important theory, from the view of
psychological contract, is ‘equity theory’. Equity theory is concerned
with the underlying principles by which rewards are distributed, and
how these are perceived fair or otherwise. The links between equity
theory and the psychological contract are clearly drawn .The
behavioral approach combines the theories of ‘goal setting’ and
‘organizational behavioral modification.’ In many respects, the
behavioral approach fulfils many of the requirements for the
psychological contract. The main point made is that almost any
change has the potential to change the psychological contract. It is
part of the function of leaders to re-negotiate such changes.
51
discussed. The psychological contract in groups is concerned with
issue of how individual relates to each other in groups and may
also contain elements concerning inter group relations. It has been
noted that the breach of psychological contract may damage the
group effectiveness.
3.4.14 The final three chapters of the book lay emphasis upon the
application of the theories to practical situation. Chapter-10 deals
with boss management, chapter-11 deals with ‘coping with change’
52
and finally chapter-12 deals with self-management. It is noted that
change of any significance usually involve changes in both the
economic and psychological contracts. These will need to be re-
negotiated. Empowerment and self management involve a major
change in the psychological contract. Authors have noted that a
well planned and openly re-negotiated move to greater self-
management is essentially a non-zero sum game. Both the parties
(employees & employers) stand to gain from the new psychological
contract.
3.4.15 Thus it is seen that this book is well written book about
psychological contract, its linkages for various HR processes and
how management can effectively use the concept of psychological
contract for increase effectiveness of organization. The linkages of
psychological contract with other processes at macro level have
been covered in detail, but the micro level linkages at individual
level have been ignored. The linkages between psychological
contract and the personality are not dealt with in this book although
the personality of a person is likely to have an effect on nature of
his/her psychological contract.
3.5.1 This is one of the chapter in the book ‘Personnel Psychology and
Human Resource Management’, edited by Ivan T. Robertson and
Carry L. Cooper. In this chapter, authors have presented the
* Lynne J. Millward and Paul M. Brewerton; ‘Psychological Contract: Employee Relations for the twenty first century’
appeared in Cary L. Cooper and Ivan T. Robertson (Eds), IRIOP 2000 v 15, 2000, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
53
development of concept of ‘Psychological Contract’ from its initial
conception to the most modern status as a scientific construct. As
noted by authors:
“the employment contract is basic to organizational membership
and it constitutes the mainstay of employment relation,
establishing an exchange of promises and contributions
between two parties: employer and employee”
3.5.2 It has been noted in this paper that until the last decade, the term
‘Psychological Contract’ was used mainly as a framework or
backdrop (rather than a scientific construct) and little research
had been undertaken at that time. However, since 90s the
psychological contract has acquired construct status as a
cognitive-perceptual entity, and deemed to be measurable and
owned solely by the individual, as opposed to being a property of
the relationship between two parties. The authors have noted the
major contribution made by Rousseau through her research
papers and further researches done by her students.
3.5.3 Changes in economic and political life, with the attendant collapse
of traditional organizational designs and structures (through
downsizing, outsourcing etc) severely undermined conventional
forms of employer-employee exchange (E.g. Job Security offered
in exchange for loyalty). This led to organizational behavior
researchers to the study of “contract” between employer &
employee. The concept of psychological contract is now of
worldwide interest and significance.
54
a) New ways of working: The changing context of the
workplace in the 1990s derives from a variety of economic,
technological and sociological phenomena and these
changes have had significant implications for the majority of
full time workforce. Full time jobs have been reduced and
part time or temporary jobs are on increase. There has been
a shift from traditional working pattern to a
core/complementary structure; that is organization
employing core long–term contract based and
complementary short-term contract based employees having
major implications for both type of employees.
55
c) Diversity and the multicultural working world:
Recognition of diversity and its systematic management has
become the key for organizational survival and success.
Diversity has major implication for how people work together
and how they perceive the work & its environment and thus
provides an essential backdrop against which to investigate
contractual issues.
56
• A history of conflict and low trust
• Social distance - parties do not understand the perspectives
of the other
• External pattern of violation (e.g. during an era of business
retrenchment)
• Incentives to breach contracts are high
• One party perceives little value in the relationship
57
3.6 The Psychological Contract and Individual Differences: The Role of
Exchange and Creditor Ideologies (By Jacqueline A-M. Coyle-Shapiro
and Joel H. Neuman)*
3.6.1 The article under review is about a research study which explores
the relationship between two such dispositional characteristics
(exchange and creditor ideologies) that relate strongly to the
social exchange process and the formation of psychological
contract beliefs. The influence of these dispositional
characteristics on psychological contract process has been
examined in this study.
* Coyle-Shapiro, Jacqueline A-M. & Neuman, Joel H. (2004), The psychological contract and individual differences: the
role of exchange and creditor ideologies [online], London: LSE research Online, Available at:
http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/archive/00000826.
58
3.6.2 Exchange ideology has been defined as the degree to which an
individual’s work effort depends upon perceived organizational
treatment. It is a dispositional orientation reflecting a person’s
expectations for the person - organization exchange. A person
with a strong exchange ideology will work hard if treated well or
fairly, whereas individuals with a weak exchange ideology will
continue to work hard even if perceive themselves as being poorly
or unfairly treated.
59
3.6.5 As confirmed by some laboratory experiments, the individuals
rated high in creditor ideology returned greater help than they had
received. In the employment relationship, creditors are more likely
to invest in the relationship through increasing their perceived
obligations to their organizations and fulfilling those obligations to
a greater extent.
3.6.6 This article outlined the research study carried out by authors to
test their propositions about exchange and creditor ideologies and
its effect on psychological contract. The study confirmed that
there is a strong relationship between employer obligations and
employee fulfillment of obligations when exchange ideology is
high. Further the relationship between perceived employer
fulfillment of obligations and employee obligations is stronger for
employees with a low creditor ideology than for employees with
high creditor ideology.
60
fulfillment of those obligations. In short, while it is recognized that
situational factors are important determinants in shaping behavior,
individual difference contribute another important element.
3.7.2 To start with, the author has emphasized the need of managing
the psychological contracts of employees in modern time. Flatter
organizations, geographically dispersed work locations, and ever
increasing aspiration levels for service and innovation make it
difficult for employer to motivate workers strictly through
supervision or monetary incentives. However understanding and
effective management of psychological contract can help
organization thrive.
61
c) Incompleteness: Neither employers nor employees can
initially spell out all the details of a long term employment
relationship. Moreover, changing circumstances mean that
not all contingencies can be foreseen. This implies that,
probably with the exception of short term, limited transaction,
psychological contracts tend to be incomplete and need to
take shape over time.
d) Multiple Contract Makers: The interpretation of their
psychological contracts by employees is influenced by many
sources of information like boss, co-workers, and human
resource practices such as training and performance
appraisal process. When various sources convey different
messages, it erodes the mutuality of the psychological
contract.
e) Managing Losses When Contract Fail: When psychological
contracts are violated it results in negative reactions.
Therefore workers and employers must focus both on
fulfilling commitments of their psychological contracts as well
as managing losses when existing commitments are difficult
to keep.
f) The Contract as Model of the Employment Relationship: A
psychological contract creates an enduring mental model of
the employment relationship and this mental model provides
a stable understanding of future expectations and guides all
the future actions accordingly.
62
ii) Transactional Psychological Contracts
iii) Hybrid or Balanced Psychological Contracts
3.7.5 The author further notes that agreement between worker and
employer on what each owes the other is critical to the employment
relationship’s success. Creating mutuality is the gold standard in
employment relations. A long list of dysfunctional outcomes is
generated when an employer or worker believes that the
psychological contract has been willfully breached by the other
side.
3.7.6 Author has further thrown light on how do workers shape their own
psychological contracts. It is suggested that workers shape their
psychological contracts in three ways:
i) Through their career goals
ii) Personality of workers
iii) Idiosyncratic deals ( special employment arrangements)
3.7.7 The article presents following guidelines for employers to help firms
effectively manage psychological contracts and, in so doing,
increasing the odds of achieving important organizational goals:
i) strive for consistent implementation of psychological
contract
ii) Establish a clear meta contract that can be used
across the firm
iii) Build flexibility into psychological contracts
63
employers simply have no clue how many different “contract
makers” shape the beliefs that their workers hold, implying
obligations without fully comprehending their ramifications. In
contrast, employers that deliberately formulate and execute
consistent psychological contracts are in a position to keep
their commitments and motivate the worker contributions
essential to their mutual success. Enterprises that serve their
stakeholders well are sustained by principled leadership and
a highly committed workforce, and psychological contracts
are their fundamental building blocks.”
* Nelson Lindsay, Tonks Graeme & Weymoutn Joshua; The Psychological Contract and Job satisfaction: Experiences of
a Group of Casual Workers, 2006, Research and Practice in Human Resource Management.
64
with permanent workers, have substandard rights, benefits and
protection, as well as substantial levels of precariousness.
3.8.3 Data obtained from the interviews were analyzed using computer
software and it revealed two primary categories reflecting the
transactional and relational contract entities. From this initial
divergence, software revealed a number of sub categories. The
transactional dimension exposed concerns about pay & benefits as
expected. However, the relational dimensions was mere complex
and surfaced various factors like ‘hard and soft versions’ of HRM,
interaction with colleagues and supervisors, issues of trust,
commitment, organizational citizenship behaviors(OCB) and anti
role attitudes. The result showed there was agreement with an
expectation of being paid for overtime, and doing the job for money
as expected in transactional psychological contract. The result
suggests that respondents did not expect that relational aspects of
the psychological contract would be fulfilled. Further it was noted
65
that casual workers were dissatisfied with many aspects of their
job, yet were prepared to endure these features of the workplace in
order to gain employment.
3.8.5 Although the sample size used for the study was small, the findings
showed a strong transactional orientation. Employees held no
thoughts of permanent relationship or a sense of belonging and
involvement. At the same time, however, the qualitative data
revealed a strong feeling of dissatisfaction over the way these
employees were treated.
66
important. --- In fact, the finding suggests that relational
qualities are more important than the transactional
orientation, because its fulfillment or unfulfillment can have
impact on individual’s attitudes and behaviors and thus, on
organizational performance.”
67
contract breach in terms of responses by employees. The authors
have noted that the process of psychological contract formation
remains theoretically underdeveloped and has received limited
empirical attention with few exceptions. In this research study, the
main objective is to gain better understanding of the process of
psychological contract formation by the newcomers during
socialization process. Specifically, this study investigates the
process of psychological contract formation in following ways:-
a) To investigate psychological contract formation as a sense
making process taking place during organizational
socialization. This study examines how changes in
newcomers’ perceived promises are associated with their
interpretation of experiences encountered after
organizational entry.
b) To relate the process of psychological contract formation to
the socialization process. The socialization period is
generally considered as an important stage in the
formation of psychological contract.
c) It takes into account newcomer’s perception of both
parties’ promises and actions (employer and employees).
Taking into account newcomer’s perception of both parties’
promises and actions makes it possible to examine how
both are dynamically interrelated over time.
68
individual. It means that it is the perception of reality, not reality par
se, which is the central focus of the psychological contract
research. This means that employees actively make sense of their
psychological contract based upon their experiences within the
organization.
3.9.5 In this study, the research sample consisted of full time employees
with a permanent employment contract, working for six large
privately owned firms in Belgium (N= 333). Data was collected at
four points in time: 2 weeks after entry (T1) and then 3 months (T2),
6 months (T3) and 12 months(T4) after entry, using a longitudinal
research design to assess the perceived promises, perceived
inducements, and contributions.
69
Employer Employee
Inducements Contributions
Interpretation of Interpretation of
experiences Reciprocal experiences
adaptation
Unilateral Unilateral
adaptation adaptation
70
3.9.6 The analysis and result of the study has shown that newcomers
changed their perception of what their employer had promised them
based on their perception of the employer inducements actually
received. They also changed their perceptions of what they had
promised their employers based on their perception of what they
actually contributed to their employer.
3.9.7 The study shows that during the first year after entry newcomers’
interpretations of their experiences within the work setting are
associated with changes in their perceptions of the terms of their
employment deal. It implies that newcomers’ psychological contract
are not formed once and for all at the time they enter the
organization. They evolve and are periodically revised as a result of
sense made of experiences encountered after entry.
71
3.10 The Changing Nature of Psychological Contract in the IT industry:
1997-2001 ( By Philippa Davidson) *
3.10.3 For the purpose of this study, the authors have concentrated on IT
industry of UK during the period 1997 – 2001.
* Davidson Phillippa; The changing Nature of the Psychological Contract in the IT Industry: 1997-2001; Research Papers
in Human Resources Management; Kingston Business School; Kingston University, UK.
72
3.10.5 The second theme that emerged was that the psychological
contract is affected by a number of influences and in particular
following six factors were explored:
• Age
• Gender
• Individual’s role within the organization
• Type of organization : IT company or IT department
within a non IT company
• Length of time the individual had worked within IT.
• Length of time the individual had worked for the
current employer
3.10.6 And, finally the author notes that individual’s psychological contract
had changed over the period, following changes in wider work
environment.
73
Balance of benefits and rewards
Choice
Pace of Change
High Low
Trust
Clarity
Individualism
74
3.10.9 The above continuum is based on the supposition of there being a
strong relationship between the benefits an individual is expected to
give to an organization and the reward they expect in return.
3.10.10 The author has identified following four distinct groups from the
research sample:
• Challenge-hunters tended to be male, under 40, worked
in the technical roles in IT departments and had been
employed by their current employers for less than two
years; they were also uninterested in Corporate Culture
and Job Security.
• Lifestyle-enthusiasts, on the other hand, were females
who had spent five years or more in their current
organizations; like Challenge–hunters they did not value
Job Security and ranked Corporate Culture and Loyalty
to the Company as relatively unimportant.
• Reward seekers were male, worked in management
roles in IT companies, had spent up to 20 years working
in IT and between two and five years in their current
companies; they shared the Lifestyle- enthusiast’s views
about Job security, Corporate Culture and Loyalty to the
Company and added Physical Working Environment to
the list of unimportant factors.
• Company-servers were 40 or over and had 20 or more
years experience in the IT industry; they felt that Physical
Working Environment and Working Hours were the least
important factors.
75
psychological contracts. The four types of persons identified in the
findings supported this conclusion.
3.10.12 In the last, the authors have noted that the contract breaches (in
the form of redundancies) have had a marked effect on individuals
whether they have experienced them at first hand or not. It,
therefore, appears that mere awareness of breach is enough to
have an impact on the psychological contract. Further it is noted:
“The psychological contract has been shown to be a highly
subjective concept. Each individual’s experiences, both at
work and in their lives in general, play a part in defining both
current and future attitudes to the employment relationship.
This individuality makes the psychological contract an
interesting research subject: general findings may show
similarities across studies but detailed responses will always
exhibit an element of uniqueness.”
* Galvin John E., Mckinney Vicki R. and Chudoba Katherine M.; From Me to We: the Role of the Psychological
th
Contract in Team Formation; Proceedings of 38 Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences-2005.
76
3.11.2 The role played by work teams to accomplish business objectives is
universally accepted as very important. Unfortunately not all work
teams are effective and it is important to understand the process of
formation of teams to make them more effective.
77
3.11.7 When the individuals come together to form a team, they are
coming together to achieve a common goal. As team members join
the team, they bring with them their own personal goals and
objectives. These personal expectations provide them with scripts
and beliefs about how the team should function but are not
necessarily held in common with other team members. These
personal expectations form the individual psychological contract
with the team and become the framework for establishing shared
team mental models. Further the development of a shared team
model requires communication and as additional information is
received from other team members, individuals selectively use this
information to update their knowledge. As the team member
integrates their newly acquired knowledge with their existing
knowledge structures, their team mental model will be updated and
this process continues throughout the life of the team, thus allowing
the team members’ mental model to evolve towards shared models
with other team members.
78
3.12 An Analysis of Psychological Contracts in Volunteerism and the
Effect of Contract Breach on Volunteer Contributions to the
Organization (By Becky J. Starnes, PhD)*
3.12.2 The not-for-profit sector (NGO etc.) form important part of modern
society and relies heavily on the support of volunteers to respond to
increasing demands for service, quality and accountability.
Therefore, it becomes necessary for managers of volunteers to do
all they can to recruit, retain, and improve the efficiency of their
volunteer workforce.
3.12.4 The survey finding confirmed that the volunteers who perceived a
breach in the psychological contract were likely to reduce the
number of hours they worked, and increase (or perceive an
increase) in the quality of their work. However no relationship
between the volunteer’s intentions to remain with the organization
and a perception of a breach in the psychological contract was
* Starnes Becky J., An Analysis of Psychological Contracts in Volunteerism and the Effect of Contract Breach on
Volunteer Contributions to the organization; volume XXIV, Number 3, January 2007, The International Journal of
Volunteer Administration.
79
found. However, data suggest that age and the length of time
served may influence the relationships between the volunteer’s
perceptions of a breach of contract and their intentions to remain
with the organization.
* Ans De Vos, Annelies Meganck & Dirk Buyens, The Role of the Psychological Contract in Retention management:
Confronting HR-Managers’ and Employees’ views on Retention factors and the Relationship with Employees’
Intentions to Stay; Vlerick leuven Gent working paper series 2005/05, Vlerick Leuven Gent Management School.
80
3.13.2 It is noted that due to ongoing environmental challenges like
globalization, competitive market conditions and
deregulation, organizations are required to be more flexible
and responsive. It has resulted in fundamental changes in
employment relationship also, and has led to more attrition
rate of talented employees. The organizations are pressed to
attract and retain talented employees who have
competencies that are critical for organization’s success.
This has resulted in emphasis on ‘retention management’. At
the same time, the concept of psychological contract has
become a relevant construct for understanding and
managing contemporary employment relationships.
81
4. Social Atmosphere
5. Work-Life Balance
3.13.8 The outcome of above survey supported the idea of the five
categories of retention factors both by HR managers and
employees. However, the result indicated that not all five
types of retention practices are equally important in affecting
employees’ retention. The evaluation of promises about
‘career opportunity’ appears to be most predictive of
employees’ intention to leave and of their job search
behaviors.
82
to the strategic objectives of the organization. The
psychological contract hereby provides a practically useful
framework to manage employees’ expectations and to
engage in an open process of communication and
negotiation about the employment deal.
3.14.2 Authors have noted that the recent trends in the employment
contracts which lay stress on short-term employment
contracts and a loss of job security. These factors have
resulted in a re-definition of career expectations and of the
nature of the employment relationship. It has been noted that
the old contract of ‘security in exchange for loyalty’ has been
replaced by a new contract of ‘employability for flexibility’.
* Martin Grimmer and Mathew Oddy; Violation of the Psychological Contract: The Mediating Effect of Relational Versus
Transactional Beliefs; vol. 32, No. 1, June 2007, Australian Journal of Management.
83
3.14.1 Authors have further mentioned about two major types of
psychological contract: relational and transactional.
Relational contract characterizes beliefs about obligations
based on exchange of socio–emotional factors (e.g. loyalty
and support) rather than purely monetary issues.
Transactional contract, on the other hand, are focused on
short-term monetary agreements with little close involvement
of the parties. Relational contract tends to describe
perceived obligations that are emotional and intrinsic in
nature, whilst transactional contract describe obligations that
are economic and extrinsic. Relational contract are,
therefore, more subjective and less tangible in comparison to
transactional contracts.
84
3) To assess the possible mediating effect of the
contract type, relational versus transactional, on the
impact of contract violation.
3.14.5 The results of the study showed that participants were more
likely to hold relational type expectations regarding their
employment than transactional expectations. Further, it was
found that relational scores were positively correlated with
organizational commitment and trust. The expected
relationship between transactional scores and commitment
was found, but not between transactional scores and trust.
3.14.6 The current study also supported the earlier research finding
to the perception of contract violation and contract fulfillment;
and authors have concluded that the notion of contract
violation, being normal, is generalisable to the Australian
context also.
85
3.14.8 This study further explored the mediating effects of contract
type on the relationship between fulfillment of expectation
and organizational commitment & trust. The relational scores
were found to be correlated with fulfillment of expectations,
and no such relationship was found for transactional scores.
86
CHAPTER – 4
4.2 Objectives :
87
iv) To investigate the difference in type of Psychological
Contracts held by persons of different age groups
employed by government organizations.
88
Employers’ HRM
Policies and practices
Employees’ conception of
employment relationship
Employees’ attitudes
and behaviors
89
4.3.3 In view of above characteristics of jobs in the government
owned organization in India, it is natural for employees to
have a relational type of psychological contract, which is
characterized primarily by long term relationship and above
mentioned characteristics of job under organizations owned
by the government. Therefore the null and alternative
hypotheses are:
Hypothesis - 1:
90
their own obligations. In other words, older employees tend
to have more relational contracts as compared to their
younger counterparts.
Hypothesis - 2:
91
4.3.6 Gender is another important variable in organizational
research area because, for many people, it is one of the
fundamental categories around which the social world is
organized. Sex difference in human performance cannot be
explained easily and in several domains where reasonably
objective measurements have been possible, no such
differences have been found. In the area of psychological
contract research, it was hypothesized that women would be
more transactional oriented in relation to their job, they are
largely disconnected from the work place and will exit more
easily. However, this was refuted and this particular study
showed that women in full time work interface is much the
same way as men. Based on above discussion, the relevant
null and alternative hypotheses are:
Hypothesis - 3:
H3O: There will be no significant difference in type of
psychological contract formed by male and female
government employees.
92
beliefs of what the agreement with his or her organization
involves. Many scholars agree that the psychological
contract is an individual level phenomenon that could be
influenced by individual differences variables. One of the
important and major individual level factor, which is used to
differentiate an individual, is his/her “personality”. The
personality refers to all those characteristics or fundamental
traits of the person that endure over time and that account
for consistent pattern of responses to every day situations.
Personality traits supposedly account for the what, why, and
how of human functioning. Therefore, it is logical to assume
that formation of psychological contract by an employee is
influenced by his or her personality. Rousseau, an expert in
this field, has also noted that “Personality undeniably plays a
role in psychological contracts.”
93
low on ‘extraversion’ tend to be introvert, quiet, low-key,
deliberate and less dependent on social world.
94
people are prone to subordinate personal needs to those of
the group, to accept the group’s norms rather than insisting
on his or her personal norms. Harmony is more important to
them. At the other end of Agreeableness scale are
disagreeable individuals who place self-interest above
getting along with others. He is more focused on his or her
personal norms and needs rather on those of the group.
They are more concerned with acquiring and exercising
power, and follow the beat of their own drum rather than
getting in step with the group.
95
4.3.14 Keeping above discussion in view, the relevant null and
alternative hypotheses are:
Hypothesis - 4:
Hypothesis - 5:
96
Hypothesis - 6:
Hypothesis - 7:
97
TABLE – 4.1: RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
98
CHAPTER – 5
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5.4 SAMPLE DESIGN: The target population covered under this project
are the employees of selected government departments / or
organizations owned by the government like PSUs. To ensure wide
99
Define Research Problem
Literature Review
Formulation of research
objectives and hypothesis
Research Design
(Including sample design)
Data Collection
Data Analysis
& Hypothesis testing
FIGURE - 5.1: The model of the research process followed
Interpretation of Results
i) Production / Manufacturing
ii) Civil construction / Projects
100
iii) Banks/ Insurance/ Finance
iv) Office jobs / Ministries
v) Armed Forces
vi) Education, Training and HRD
vii) Public Transport
viii) Marketing / Sales
ix) Health care / hospitals
x) Research & Development
Sr.
Organization Functional Area Represented
No.
101
1 Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Marketing / sales
Vadodara
2 Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Production
Mumbai
3 Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Marketing / sales
Limited, Lucknow
4 Bharat Petroleum Corporation Production
Limited, Mumbai
5 National Thermal Power Office job / Contracts
Corporation, NOIDA
6 National Thermal Power Production / Power Generation
Corporation, Ghaziabad
7 Employee State Insurance Health Care / Hospitals
Hospital, Lucknow
8 Life Insurance Corporation , Agra Finance / Insurance
102
5.4.3 Each of these organizations was sent 25 sets of research
questionnaires through acquaintances in these organizations
and prospective respondents were requested to fill up
questionnaire and return the same. The filled up
questionnaire received from each organization and number
of valid responses are indicated in following TABLE – 5.2.
The response rate for valid responses is 35% which is
considered to be adequate.
103
TABLE 5.2: ANALYSIS OF SAMPLE COLLECTION
No. of No. of
Sr. No. of valid
Organization questionnaires questionnaires
No. questionnaires
sent received
1 Oil and Natural Gas 25 11 10
Corporation, Vadodara
2 Oil and Natural Gas 25 4 3
Corporation, Mumbai
3 Hindustan Petroleum 25 13 10
Corporation Limited,
Lucknow
4 Bharat Petroleum 25 6 4
Corporation Limited,
Mumbai
5 National Thermal Power 25 10 10
Corporation, NOIDA
6 National Thermal Power 25 10 7
Corporation, Ghaziabad
7 Employee State Insurance 25 7 5
Hospital, Lucknow
8 Life Insurance Corporation 25 9 7
, Agra
9 Central Electricity 25 17 14
Authority, New Delhi
10 Nuclear Power 25 11 9
Corporation, Mumbai
11 Naval Head Quarter, New 25 20 18
Delhi
12 Rajasthan State Road 25 19 18
Transport Corporation,
Jaipur
13 Moradabad Development 25 10 6
authority, Moradabad,
U.P.
14 Institute of Secretariat 25 16 13
Training and
Development, Ministry of
HRD, New Delhi
15 Jawaharlal Nehru Port 25 5 3
Trust, Mumbai (JNPT)
16 Kendriya Vidyalaya, Agra 25 10 8
17 Central Electronic 25 5 4
Engineering Research
Institute ( CEERI), Pilani
104
5.4.4.3 The sample size required for an independent sample
one way ANOVA analysis, assuming medium effect size
(Cohen’s f = 0.25), is around 150 for 80% power of test
and a 0.05 significance level.
5.4.4.5 The sample size used in this study (n=149) meets the
above requirements of sample sizes for various statistical
analysis to be carried out in this study at 0.05
significance level and for 80% power of test.
5.4.5 The total sample size used in this study is 149 (n=149). The
demographic analysis of sample is shown in TABLE - 5. 3
and depicted graphically in FIGURE – 5.2.
5.5 DATA COLLECTION METHOD: The method used for data collection
is self-report questionnaires. The merits of this method are:
i) This method is economical as compared to other
methods like interview.
ii) It is free from interviewer’s bias.
iii) Respondents get adequate time to give well thought out
answers.
iv) Respondents in far away areas can be reached.
v) Large samples can be used.
105
TABLE 5.3: Demographic Analysis of Sample
Gender
Males 120 81 %
Females 29 19 %
Age
21 yr – 30 yr 26 17 %
31 yr – 40 yr 38 26 %
41 yr – 50 yr 51 34 %
51 yr – 60 yr 34 23 %
106
Gender Distribution of Sample
19%
MALE
FEMALE
81%
23% 17%
21 Yrs - 30 Yrs
31 Yrs - 40 Yrs
41 Yrs - 50 Yrs
26%
51 Yrs - 60 Yrs
34%
107
There are certain pitfalls also of this method, as detailed
under:
i) Low rate of response. However about 30%
response rate is considered adequate.
ii) Can be used only with educated respondents.
iii) There is a possibility of ambiguous reply or
omission of replies altogether to certain
questions.
iv) It is difficult to know whether willing
respondents are truly representatives.
108
5.6.2 Other researchers have also constructed instruments
for measuring the prototypical components of the Big
Five particularly keeping in mind the need for shorter
instrument. One such instrument is Big Five Inventory
(BFI). BFI is brief inventory that allows efficient and
flexible assessment of the five dimensions, without
giving more differentiated measurement of individual
facets. It is decided to use this inventory to assess the
personality. The alpha reliability of BFI scale has been
reported to be above 0.80 (average), and mean test-
retest reliability of 0.85. Validity evidence includes
substantial convergent and divergent relations with
other Big Five instruments as well as with peer
ratings.
109
reliability of Employer Fulfillment and Employee
Fulfillment is reported as 0.84 and 0.75 (cronbach’s
alpha) respectably. Rosseau claims that PCI meets
the established criteria for internal consistency
reliability and convergent and discriminant validity.
110
5.7.3 Section-2: Section-2 of the questionnaire captures the type
of psychological contract of the respondents, which they
perceive as formed between them and their employer. It
uses “Psychological Contract Inventory (PCI)” developed by
Denise M. Rousseau. As reported by her, it is a
psychometrically sound tool for assessing the generalisable
content of the psychological contract, which contains both
content, and evaluation measures. It assesses individual
subjective reports regarding a particular employment
relationship. It measures type of psychological contract –
Relational, Transactional, Balanced or Transitional. Each of
these dimensions has further been subdivided to subscales
as shown in TABLE-5.4 below:
Relational Stability
Loyalty
Balanced External employability
Internal employability
Dynamic performance
Transactional Narrow
Short term
Transitional Mistrust
Uncertainty
Erosion
111
PCI employs four items for each construct and it is
measured twice – first in terms of respondent’s belief
regarding employer’s obligations to the employee, and then
again in terms of employee’s obligations to the organization.
Therefore it contains 80 items in all.
112
and Srivastava’s 44- items Big Five Inventory (BFI); Costa &
McCrae’s 60-items NEO Five Factor Inventory (FFI); and
Goldberg’s instrument of 100 trait descriptive adjectives
(TDA). Out of these, it is proposed to employ 44-items BFI
for this study.
113
CHAPTER – 6
6.2 The data analysis and hypothesis testing were carried out
using computer software package SPSS ver-12. The
relevant result outputs of SPSS are enclosed under
APPENDIX–2, as various annexures to this chapter.
114
6.3 Analysis of Scores of Psychological Contract Inventory (PCI)
scale (section 2 of Research Questionnaire) : The scores
on four types of psychological contract was calculated by taking
average of individual items on a 5-point scale with 5
representing the highest end of particular type of contract. The
analysis output of SPSS on these scales is enclosed in
Annexure -1.
6.3.2 Further, Stem & Leaf plot on these variable indicate the
normal distribution of scores on these variables. The
output of SPSS is enclosed as Annexure -1.
115
scores on these five factors were obtained on a 5-point
scale, where 5 indicating maximum on respective scale.
Standard
Personality Factor Mean Score
Deviation
Conscientiousness 4.06 0.62
116
nature. The mean score & standard deviation on four types
of contracts are shown in TABLE 6.1, as under.
117
6.5.1.5 Therefore the null hypothesis (H1o) is rejected
and alternate hypothesis (H1A) is accepted.
118
6.5.2.2 The mean scores on ‘Relational’ contract of various age
groups were compared using independent samples one
way analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique. The SPSS
output is enclosed as Annexure – 4.
119
6.5.3.1 The mean scores on various types of psychological
contracts of male and female employees were compared
using independent sample t-test. The SPSS output is
enclosed as Annexure-5.
120
6.5.3.6 The mean scores on ‘Transactional’ contract were 2.42
(SD=0.58) for males and 2.57 (SD= 0.63) for females. The
95 percent confidence intervals for means are 2.31 to 2.52
for males and 2.33 to 2.81 for females. The scores on
‘Transactional’ contract of males & females were compared
using an independent sample t-test. There was no significant
difference between the scores on ‘Transactional’ contract of
males and females t (147) = 1.24, p = 0.22.
121
contracts formed by male and female employees. For
‘Transitional Contract’, females were found to be having
more mean score as compared to males.
Conscientiousness - - .45 **
Neuroticism -
122
6.5.4.3 It is observed that score on Transactional contract is
negatively correlated with scores on Openness ( r = -.05,
p>0.05), Agreeableness (r = -.19, p< 0.05), Extraversion
(r = -.06, p> 0.05), Conscientiousness (r = -.05, p>0.05)
and positively associated with Neuroticism (r = 0.16,
p>0.05).
123
6.5.5.2 The Pearson correlation coefficients between scores on
‘Relational’ contracts and various personality factors are
shown in TABLE-6.5, as under.
Conscientiousness - - .45 **
Neuroticism -
124
statistical significant at 0.05 level of significance and
having negative medium correlation.
125
TABLE – 6.6 : Correlations between ‘Balanced’ contract and Big Five
Personality factors.
Balanced Openness Conscientiousness Neuroticism
Conscientiousness - - .45 **
Neuroticism -
126
6.5.7 HYPOTHESIS –7: It was hypothesized that ‘Transitional’
contract is more likely to be positively associated with
Neuroticism.
127
TABLE – 6.7: Result of Hypotheses Testing
Sr.
Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
No.
The type of psychological contract formed The type of psychological contracts formed by
by government employees is not specific in government employees tends to be
H1 nature. predominantly ‘Relational’ in nature.
-REJECTED - ACCEPTED
Age does not have any significant effect on As age increases, there will be a significant
type of psychological contract of shift towards relational dimension of
H2 government employees. psychological contract of government
employees.
- ACCEPTED -REJECTED
The formation of ‘Relational Contract’ is not The formation of ‘Relational Contract’ is more
related to the personality. likely to be positively associated with scores
H5 on ‘Openness to Experience’ scale,
Agreeableness scale and Conscientiousness
scale and negatively associated with
Extraversion scale and Neuroticism scale.
- ACCEPTED , (except with respect to
-REJECTED Extraversion)
The formation of ‘Balanced Contract’ is not The formation of ‘Balanced Contract’ is more
related to the personality. likely to be positively associated with scores
H6 on ‘Openness to Experience’ scale, and
Conscientiousness scale and negatively
-REJECTED associated with Neuroticism scale.
- ACCEPTED
128
CHAPTER – 7
CONCLUSION, SUGGESTION
AND LIMITATION
7.1 CONCLUSION :
7.1.2 The literature review indicates that personality factors (big five
factors, gender and age) may have an effect on the type of
psychological contracts formed by employees. The study was
restricted only to the persons employed in government organization
in India. The reason of focusing on government employees were:
i. The government offers a unique employment condition in
India, viz. life time career job, stable pay and limited
129
responsibility etc. These features of employment are not
observed in jobs in the private or corporate sectors where
job conditions are market driven.
ii. Government job in India are considered coveted and much
sought for. Also a sizable workforce is employed by the
Government in India.
iii. Citizen now expect positive response and better work
culture from government organizations.
iv. Psychological contract has emerged as a way to analyse
and manage the behaviour of employees.
130
study was “Psychological Contracts”, no further detailed study on
this aspect was undertaken.
131
age groups, and contrary to expectation, no significant change in
scores on various types of contract across different groups was
noticed.
132
found to be negatively associated with Neuroticism, although this
correlation is small and non-significant statistically.
7.2 SUGGESTION :
133
TABLE - 7.1: Summary of Objectives and Outcomes
134
beliefs, promises and obligations – each of which actually
implies different levels of psychological engagement. In the
same way that idea about culture, climate and competencies
were used to help practitioners capture complex changes
needed in their organization, the psychological contract can
be used as a frame of analysis that helps to:
- Capture changes taking place at the individual,
organizational and societal level.
- Discriminate between organizational responses.
- Serve as a basis for predicting individual behaviour.
135
study is a small step to understand this linkage between
individual measure of personality and the psychological
contracts.
7.2.6 The personality traits are relatively stable over time and
unique to an individual and many reliable and valid standard
instruments are available to assess the personality of
persons. The knowledge of personality can be used to
predict the type of psychological contract likely to be formed
by the employees. The contracts have the effect of reducing
uncertainty for both parties. The reduction of uncertainty is
important both for individuals and organizations. The
reduction of uncertainty allows individuals and organizations
to predict future events and to undertake planning.
136
Contextual
and Policy State of the
and Psychological Outcomes
Background Contract Psychological
Factors Practice Contract
Attitudinal
Individual: Consequences:
Age Organizational
Gender commitment
Education Work satisfaction
Personality HR policy Work-life balance
Level in and practices Job security
organisation Motivation
Reciprocal Delivery Stress
Type of work Leadership/
promises of the Trust
Hours worked Climate
and deal
Employment
contract Employment obligations Fairness Behavioural
Ethnicity relations Consequences:
Tenure Attendance
Income Quality of Intention to
workplace stay/quit
Organizational: Job performance
Sector OCB
Size
Ownership
Business
strategy
Union recognition
137
contract by the individuals and hence can be used effectively for
selection / placement and tailoring the organizational incentives
to match the individual’s expectations. This will ensure minimal
occurrences of violation of psychological contract. This in turn
will enhance organizational effectiveness as negative
consequences of breach of psychological contracts are avoided.
138
Appendix-1 : Research Questionnaire
From:
Manoj Goyal
C/o Research & Extension Center,
Dr. D. Y. Patil Institute of Management Studies,
Belapur, Navi Mumbai
Dear Friends,
The project requires you to fill in the enclosed survey questionnaire, which is in
three (3) sections including some general information about yourself. This information
remains strictly confidential at all times and no names are referred to in this
questionnaire. Please note that your participation in this survey is purely voluntary.
There are three sections in this survey. Please work through each section in order
of presentation. Please read the instructions before completing each section of the survey.
It is important to give your true reactions to each of the question asked. There are no
right or wrong answers. I am only interested to know what you really think and feel
about yourself, and how do you perceive your relationship with your employer.
The survey should take about 20-25 minutes of your valuable time to complete.
Your time and effort in completing this survey questionnaire will be greatly appreciated.
Yours Sincerely,
(Manoj Goyal)
139
Appendix-1 : Research Questionnaire
1. YOUR AGE:
Less than 21Yrs 31Yrs 41Yrs 51Yrs More than
20 Yrs to 30 Yrs to 40 Yrs to 50 Yrs to 60 Yrs 61 Yrs
2. GENDER:
Male Female
6. Tick the box which best describes your current position in the organization:
Top Management Middle Management
Lower Management Supervisor/Inspector
Workman / Salesman Others ( Pl specify)
7. Tick the box which best describes your current function in the organization:
Production Finance
Marketing / Sales Human Resource
Projects Research & Development
Administration Others ( Pl specify)
140
Appendix-1 : Research Questionnaire
To what extent has your employer made the following commitment or obligation to you?
Please answer each question by ticking in the appropriate box against each item:
Description of Commitments /
Extent of commitment made by your employer
Sr. Obligations made by your
No. employer
Not at Slightly Somewhat Moderately To a great
all extent
1 2 3 4 5
1 Employment for a specific time
period
2 Concern for my personal welfare
12 Be responsive to employee
concerns and well-being
13 Training me only for my current
job
141
Appendix-1 : Research Questionnaire
142
Appendix-1 : Research Questionnaire
143
Appendix-1 : Research Questionnaire
To what extent have you made following commitments or obligations to your employer?
Please answer each question by ticking in the appropriate box against each item
144
Appendix-1 : Research Questionnaire
145
Appendix-1 : Research Questionnaire
To what extent do the items below describe your relationship with your
employer?
146
Appendix-1 : Research Questionnaire
1 Is talkative
4 Is depressed, blue
13 Is a reliable worker
14 Can be tense
147
Appendix-1 : Research Questionnaire
18 Tends to be disorganized
19 Worries a lot
21 Tends to be quiet
22 Is generally trusting
23 Tends to be lazy
148
Appendix-1 : Research Questionnaire
36 Is outgoing, sociable
43 Is easily distracted
THANK YOU
149
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
TrxlAvg 149 100.0% 0 .0% 149 100.0%
RelationAvg 149 100.0% 0 .0% 149 100.0%
TrnslAvg 149 100.0% 0 .0% 149 100.0%
BalanceAvg 149 100.0% 0 .0% 149 100.0%
Descriptives
Annex-1 150
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Kurtosis
.874 .395
Annex-1 151
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
TrxlAvg
TrxlAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot
4.00 1 . 2333
1.00 1 . 5
9.00 1 . 667777777
20.00 1 . 88888888888899999999
28.00 2 . 0000000000000111111111111111
20.00 2 . 22222222333333333333
14.00 2 . 44444455555555
14.00 2 . 66666666667777
11.00 2 . 88888889999
11.00 3 . 00000111111
3.00 3 . 333
6.00 3 . 445555
4.00 3 . 6667
3.00 3 . 889
1.00 4 . 0
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
TrxlAvg
Annex-1 152
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
RelationAvg
RelationAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
119
137
135
1.00
RelationAvg
Annex-1 153
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
TrnslAvg
TrnslAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot
12.00 1 . 000000000001
19.00 1 . 2222222222233333333
24.00 1 . 444444444444455555555555
16.00 1 . 6666666777777777
7.00 1 . 8889999
12.00 2 . 000000001111
10.00 2 . 2222223333
14.00 2 . 44444455555555
11.00 2 . 66677777777
6.00 2 . 888899
2.00 3 . 00
5.00 3 . 22333
1.00 3 . 5
6.00 3 . 667777
.00 3 .
1.00 4 . 0
3.00 Extremes (>=4.3)
5.00
139
140
143
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
TrnslAvg
Annex-1 154
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
BalanceAvg
BalanceAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot
1.00 1 . 4
1.00 1 . 6
2.00 1 . 89
5.00 2 . 00001
6.00 2 . 222233
11.00 2 . 44555555555
8.00 2 . 66777777
10.00 2 . 8888889999
17.00 3 . 00000000111111111
12.00 3 . 222223333333
13.00 3 . 4444555555555
16.00 3 . 6666666777777777
13.00 3 . 8888899999999
13.00 4 . 0000000000111
5.00 4 . 22223
11.00 4 . 44555555555
5.00 4 . 66777
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
BalanceAvg
Annex-1 155
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
OpenAvg 149 100.0% 0 .0% 149 100.0%
ExtraAvg 149 100.0% 0 .0% 149 100.0%
AgreeAvg 149 100.0% 0 .0% 149 100.0%
NuroAvg 149 100.0% 0 .0% 149 100.0%
ConsAvg 149 100.0% 0 .0% 149 100.0%
Descriptives
Annex-2 156
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Annex-2 157
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
OpenAvg
OpenAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
88
33
135
2.00
OpenAvg
Annex-2 158
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
ExtraAvg
ExtraAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot
4.00 2 . 0111
2.00 2 . 23
3.00 2 . 555
13.00 2 . 6666666677777
16.00 2 . 8888888888888888
20.00 3 . 00000000000111111111
20.00 3 . 22222222223333333333
12.00 3 . 555555555555
12.00 3 . 666666777777
14.00 3 . 88888888888888
22.00 4 . 0000000000000111111111
5.00 4 . 22223
2.00 4 . 55
2.00 4 . 67
2.00 4 . 88
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
ExtraAvg
Annex-2 159
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
AgreeAvg
AgreeAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
135
49 112
2.50
88
2.00
AgreeAvg
Annex-2 160
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
NuroAvg
NuroAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot
10.00 1 . 0000111111
4.00 1 . 2333
8.00 1 . 55555555
7.00 1 . 6677777
6.00 1 . 888888
18.00 2 . 000000000111111111
20.00 2 . 22222222233333333333
15.00 2 . 555555555555555
24.00 2 . 666666666666666777777777
10.00 2 . 8888888888
13.00 3 . 0000000011111
6.00 3 . 223333
3.00 3 . 555
4.00 3 . 6666
1.00 Extremes (>=4.0)
21
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
NuroAvg
Annex-2 161
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
ConsAvg
ConsAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot
82
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
121
2.00 88
ConsAvg
Annex-2 162
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
RelationAvg 149 100.0% 0 .0% 149 100.0%
BalanceAvg 149 100.0% 0 .0% 149 100.0%
Descriptives
Annex-3 156
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
RelationAvg
RelationAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
119
137
135
1.00
RelationAvg
Annex-3 157
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
BalanceAvg
BalanceAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot
1.00 1 . 4
1.00 1 . 6
2.00 1 . 89
5.00 2 . 00001
6.00 2 . 222233
11.00 2 . 44555555555
8.00 2 . 66777777
10.00 2 . 8888889999
17.00 3 . 00000000111111111
12.00 3 . 222223333333
13.00 3 . 4444555555555
16.00 3 . 6666666777777777
13.00 3 . 8888899999999
13.00 4 . 0000000000111
5.00 4 . 22223
11.00 4 . 44555555555
5.00 4 . 66777
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
BalanceAvg
Annex-3 158
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
T-Test
Std. Error
Mean N Std. Deviation Mean
Pair 1 RelationA
3.6003 149 .64273 .05265
vg
BalanceA
3.3879 149 .73970 .06060
vg
N Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 RelationAvg &
BalanceAvg 149 .686 .000
Sig. (2-
Paired Differences t df tailed)
95% Confidence
Std. Std. Error Interval of the
Mean Deviation Mean Difference
Lower Upper
Pair 1 RelationAvg
.21239 .55499 .04547 .12254 .30224 4.671 148 .000
- BalanceAvg
Annex-3 159
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Age
Case Processing Summary
Cases
Valid Missing Total
Age N Percent N Percent N Percent
RelationAvg 21 to 30 Years 26 100.0% 0 .0% 26 100.0%
31 to 40 yeras 38 100.0% 0 .0% 38 100.0%
41 to 50 years 51 100.0% 0 .0% 51 100.0%
51 to 60 years 34 100.0% 0 .0% 34 100.0%
Descriptives
Annex-4 156
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
RelationAvg
Stem-and-Leaf Plots
RelationAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot for
Age= 21 to 30 Years
2.00 2 . 04
3.00 2 . 667
6.00 3 . 011133
8.00 3 . 66788889
4.00 4 . 0113
2.00 4 . 56
1.00 5 . 0
Annex-4 157
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
3.00 2 . 578
8.00 3 . 00111124
15.00 3 . 555556666788889
9.00 4 . 000111123
3.00 4 . 678
Annex-4 158
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
5.00
4.00
RelationAvg
3.00
88 122
79
2.00
119
137
135
1.00
Oneway
Descriptives
RelationAvg
95% Confidence Interval for
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Minimum Maximum
RelationAvg
Levene
Statistic df1 df2 Sig.
.768 3 145 .514
Annex-4 159
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
ANOVA
RelationAvg
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups .455 3 .152 .362 .780
Within Groups 60.684 145 .419
Total 61.139 148
RelationAvg
Statistic(a) df1 df2 Sig.
Welch .445 3 71.205 .722
a Asymptotically F distributed.
Annex-4 160
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Homogeneous Subsets
RelationAvg
Tukey HSD
Subset for
alpha =
.05
Age N 1
41 to 50 years 51 3.5515
21 to 30 Years 26 3.5721
51 to 60 years 3.5938 34
31 to 40 yeras 3.6908 38
Sig. .803
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.
a Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 35.150.
b The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the group sizes is used. Type I error levels are not guaranteed.
Means Plots
3.70
3.675
Mean of RelationAvg
3.65
3.625
3.60
3.575
3.55
Annex-4 161
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Explore
Gender
Case Processing Summary
Cases
Valid Missing Total
Gender N Percent N Percent N Percent
TrxlAvg Male 120 100.0% 0 .0% 120 100.0%
female 29 100.0% 0 .0% 29 100.0%
RelationAv Male 120 100.0% 0 .0% 120 100.0%
g female 29 100.0% 0 .0% 29 100.0%
BalanceAv Male 120 100.0% 0 .0% 120 100.0%
g female 29 100.0% 0 .0% 29 100.0%
TrnslAvg Male 120 100.0% 0 .0% 120 100.0%
female 29 100.0% 0 .0% 29 100.0%
Descriptives
Annex-5 156
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Range 2.25
Interquartile Range .91
Skewness .665 .434
Kurtosis -.114 .845
RelationAvg Male Mean 3.5964 .06009
95% Confidence Lower Bound 3.4774
Interval for Upper Bound
Mean 3.7153
Annex-5 157
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Annex-5 158
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
TrxlAvg
Stem-and-Leaf Plots
TrxlAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot for
Gender= Male
6.00 1 . 778888
7.00 2 . 0001134
10.00 2 . 5666667899
3.00 3 . 013
2.00 3 . 69
1.00 4 . 0
Stem width: 1.00
Each leaf: 1 case(s)
4.00
3.50
3.00
TrxlAvg
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
Male female
Gender
Annex-5 159
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
RelationAvg
Stem-and-Leaf Plots
RelationAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot for
Gender= Male
Frequency Stem & Leaf
3.00 Extremes (=<1.8)
4.00 2 . 0111
1.00 2 . 2
3.00 2 . 455
2.00 2 . 66
4.00 2 . 8889
14.00 3 . 00001111111111
7.00 3 . 2333333
8.00 3 . 44455555
18.00 3 . 666666666666777777
21.00 3 . 888888888888888999999
18.00 4 . 000000000011111111
11.00 4 . 22223333333
3.00 4 . 455
1.00 4 . 6
1.00 4 . 8
1.00 5 . 0
Stem width: 1.00
Each leaf: 1 case(s)
5.00
4.00
RelationAvg
3.00
2.00
119
137
135
1.00
Male female
Gender
Annex-5 160
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
BalanceAvg
Stem-and-Leaf Plots
BalanceAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot for
Gender= Male
4.00
BalanceAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
Male female
Gender
Annex-5 161
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
TrnslAvg
Stem-and-Leaf Plots
BalanceAvg Stem-and-Leaf Plot for
Gender= Male
5.00
4.00
BalanceAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
Male female
Gender
Annex-5 162
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
T-Test
Group Statistics
Std. Error
Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Mean
TrxlAvg Male 120 2.4177 .58164 .05310
female 29 2.5690 .63350 .11764
RelationAv Male 120 3.5964 .65825 .06009
g female 29 3.6164 .58457 .10855
BalanceAv Male 120 3.4389 .73302 .06692
g female 29 3.1767 .74241 .13786
TrnslAvg Male 120 2.0090 .74031 .06758
female 29 2.3693 1.02986 .19124
Levene's Test
for Equality of
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
Sig. 95% Confidence
(2- Mean Std. Error Interval of the
F Sig. t df tailed) Difference Difference Difference
Lower Upper
TrxlAvg Equal
variances .277 .599 -1.235 147 .219 -.15126 .12247 -.39328 .09077
assumed
Equal
variances not -1.172 40.178 .248 -.15126 .12907 -.41207 .10956
assumed
RelationAvg Equal
variances .201 .655 -.150 147 .881 -.02003 .13344 -.28372 .24367
assumed
Equal
variances not -.161 46.756 .872 -.02003 .12407 -.26966 .22961
assumed
BalanceAvg Equal
variances .036 .849 1.724 147 .087 .26216 .15205 -.03832 .56265
assumed
Equal
variances not 1.711 42.196 .094 .26216 .15324 -.04705 .57138
assumed
TrnslAvg Equal
variances 3.700 .056 -2.166 147 .032 -.36023 .16627 -.68881 -.03164
assumed
Equal
variances not -1.776 35.300 .084 -.36023 .20283 -.77187 .05142
assumed
Annex-5 163
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Graph
4.00
3.50
3.00
TrxlAvg
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
4.00
3.50
3.00
TrxlAvg
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
Annex-6 181
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
4.00
3.50
3.00
TrxlAvg
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
4.00
3.50
3.00
TrxlAvg
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
Annex-6 182
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
4.00
3.50
3.00
TrxlAvg
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
Correlations
Correlations
Annex-6 183
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Graphs
5.00
4.00
RelationAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
5.00
4.00
RelationAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
Annex-7 184
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
5.00
4.00
RelationAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
5.00
4.00
RelationAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
Annex-7 185
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
5.00
4.00
RelationAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
Correlations
Correlations
RelationAvg OpenAvg ExtraAvg AgreeAvg NuroAvg ConsAvg
RelationAvg Pearson
1 .246(**) .264(**) .324(**) -.210(*) .335(**)
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) . .002 .001 .000 .010 .000
N 149 149 149 149 149 149
OpenAvg Pearson
.246(**) 1 .470(**) .397(**) -.246(**) .297(**)
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .002 . .000 .000 .002 .000
N 149 149 149 149 149 149
ExtraAvg Pearson
.264(**) .470(**) 1 .314(**) -.389(**) .311(**)
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .000 . .000 .000 .000
N 149 149 149 149 149 149
AgreeAvg Pearson
.324(**) .397(**) .314(**) 1 -.472(**) .541(**)
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 . .000 .000
N 149 149 149 149 149 149
NuroAvg Pearson
-.210(*) -.246(**) -.389(**) -.472(**) 1 -.451(**)
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .010 .002 .000 .000 . .000
N 149 149 149 149 149 149
ConsAvg Pearson
.335(**) .297(**) .311(**) .541(**) -.451(**) 1
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .
N 149 149 149 149 149 149
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Annex-7 186
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Graph
5.00
4.00
BalanceAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
5.00
4.00
BalanceAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
Annex-8 187
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
5.00
4.00
BalanceAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
5.00
4.00
BalanceAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
Annex-8 188
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
5.00
4.00
BalanceAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
Correlations
Correlations
Annex-8 189
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
Graph
5.00
4.00
TrnslAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
5.00
4.00
TrnslAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
Annex-9 190
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
5.00
4.00
TrnslAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
5.00
4.00
TrnslAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
Annex-9 191
Appendix-2: S.P.S.S. Outputs
5.00
4.00
TrnslAvg
3.00
2.00
1.00
Correlations
Correlations
Annex-9 192
Appendix-3: Bibliography
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193
Appendix-3: Bibliography
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Centre for Applied Cognitive Studies (CENTACS), Charlotte, NC.
194
Appendix-3: Bibliography
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