1

Advancement of Energy Storage Devices and

Applications in Electrical Power System
Steven C. Smith, P.K. Sen, Sr. Member IEEE and Benjamin Kroposki, Sr. Member IEEE

Fig. 1 depicts the principle of energy storage applications

Abstract— Overall structure of electrical power system is in
the process of changing. For incremental growth, it is moving
away from fossil fuel based operations to renewable energy
resources that are more environmentally friendly and sustainable.
At the same time it has to grow to meet the ever increasing need
for more energy. These changes bring very unique opportunities
and obstacles. Over the past few decades many new and
innovative ideas have been explored in the broad area of energy
storage. They range in size, capacity and complexity in design.
Some of the systems are designed for applications in large scale
power and others are performing short term energy storage ride
through capabilities for critical manufacturing and technology
systems. Energy storage technology has become an enabling
technology for renewable energy applications and enhancing
power quality in the transmission and distribution power
systems. This paper will summarize all the advancements made
and provide a composite picture of costs and trends in storage
technologies.
Index Terms—Energy storage, renewable energy, distributed
resources, battery, compressed air, flywheel, pumped-hydro,
supercapacitor, ultracapacitor, superconducting magnetic energy
storage, renewable energy.
that can be applied to both the “bulk power” transmission grid
as well as the distribution system. Some of the technologies
are available for both applications. Currently distribution
applications are receiving more attention due to the concept of
micro-grid and distributed generation and other power quality
issues. In addition the need to become less dependent on
fossil fuels and foreign oil is also driving research into energy
storage devices for the transportation industry. There are
many things in common between these energy storage
applications for the transportation and backup power systems
industries since they utilize similar technologies.
The concept of energy storage in the transmission grid is
not new either. Large pumped hydro electric plants have been
operating off this principle for many decades. Over the past
two decades many other energy storage technologies have
matured to the point that they have become viable options for
selected applications in large scale power systems. Some
have already seen small to medium scale applications.

I. INTRODUCTION
Energy storage has been in existence for a long time and
has been utilized in many forms and applications from a
flashlight to the Space Shuttle.
Now energy storage technology is used to make the electric
power systems more reliable as well as making the broader
use of renewable energy a reality. Currently many states have
laws that require the utilities to increase the use of renewable
energy in their portfolios. With these requirements come
some very unique challenges. Renewable energy resources
like solar, wind and tidal wave are not dispatchable. These Fig. 1. Energy Storage Diagram
are only available when there is adequate sun, wind and tide
Energy storage systems can provide a wide array of
[29]. This is where energy storage systems become an
solutions to key issues that are affecting the power system.
enabling technology [30]. They provide the means to make
Depending on the technology selected they can provide
the non-dispatchable resources into a dispatchable energy
spinning reserves, load leveling and shifting, load forecasting,
source.
frequency control, VAR support and voltage regulation, relief
of overloaded transmission lines, release of system capacity,
enhance power quality, and needless to say more effective and
The NSF IUCRC Power Systems Energy Research Center (PSerc) supported in
the development of this paper. efficient use of capital resources.
Steven C. Smith is with Lockheed Martin, Littleton, Colorado 80122 USA Being able to store the excess available energy that has not
(e-mail: steve.c.smith@lmco.com). been consumed not only helps with the variety of issues
P.K. Sen is with Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, previously mentioned it also increases the overall efficiency
USA(e-mail: psen@mines.edu)
Benjamin Kroposki is with National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), of the power system. For 2005 the Energy Information
Golden, Colorado 80401, USA (Benjamin_Kroposki@NREL.gov) Agency reported that there was a capacity margin of 15.4%

©2008 IEEE.
 2

for the contiguous USA [25]. The majority of the power was just injecting the power into the system when it is available.
created by units using fossil fuels. Using energy storage In order to accommodate the intermittent and variable
systems this margin could be taken and stored for later use. behavior of the renewable resources the overall management
This not only helps with the overall energy efficiency of the of the power system must be altered. There are more than
system, but can also provide the array of services to the just technical issues involved when considering renewable
system previously mentioned. energy resources. There are economic factors including tax
and energy credit that must be considered in determining the
II. RENEWABLE RESOURCES application [23].
Renewable resources offer many attractive solutions to the
current energy needs. They are sustainable and environment-
ally friendly. Every region around the world has some form
of renewable energy available. By combining these resources
they can make an appreciable contribution to the total energy
needs and security of the region [2].
However the major drawback of renewable energy is its
weather dependent intermittent behavior and its inability to
dispatch power when needed. Weather data from many
resources including satellites are available to help understand
weather patterns [22]. This data can intern be used to
Fig. 3. Shell Sustained Growth Scenario [2]
forecast renewable energy outputs, but there will always be
some level of uncertainty in their forecast. For example Renewable energy is considered a large part of the solution
figure 2 shows a typical daily load curve for a utility, the to meet our energy needs in the future and maintain the
forecasted wind, and the actual wind production. When the sustainability. Fig. 3 depicts on such scenario. Energy
wind is greater than the forecast, the utility must absorb or storage is the means to make renewable energy a viable part
curtail the power. If the wind is less than the forecast, then of the power system in the future.
the utility must supply power or reduce the load. The
uncertainty of the renewable resource can be managed by the III. ENERGY STORAGE OPTIONS
use of energy storage devices.
There are a variety of energy storage options. They can be
8000 800
divided into two major categories as shown in Fig. 4. The
first being large-scale storage devices that can be used in
Gross Load (MW)
7000 Wind Forcast (MW)
Wind Actual (MW)
700
utility transmission applications. The second group includes
6000 600
small-scale storage devices located at the consumer’s site. An
example of this type of unit would be an Uninterruptable
Utility System (MW)

5000 500
Power Supply (UPS) unit using batteries.
Wind (MW)

4000 400
This paper primary addresses the utility applications of
energy storage systems. Only a few large scale energy storage
3000
Actual wind greater than prediction
300
systems are in operation today. One of the biggest questions
2000 200 currently facing energy storage device technology is “can it
Actual wind less than prediction
provide large scale energy services to the grid when needed?”
1000
Discussed below are the status and scope of current
100

0 0 technologies.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Hour

Fig. 2. Utility load versus wind power and wind forecasts

Another issue with renewable resources is their time of

energy generation. Wind generally has high production at
night and solar is usually during the mid hours of the day, this
often does not coincide with the peak loads between 5 to 9
PM. Energy storage could be used for time shifting these
resources to periods when demand is high, but for current
penetrations of renewable resources the key is to manage the
suite of generation sources available to the utility.
In addition, injecting power from renewable resources into
the power grid when available can cause other power quality
and reliability issues. Voltage swells and sags can occur by

Fig. 4. Energy Storage Applications in the Power System
A. Batteries
Batteries have been around for over one-hundred years and
possess some very unique and desirable qualities. Battery
systems are modular, quiet, and non-polluting [6]. They can
be located almost anywhere and can be installed relatively
quickly. The larger battery systems called Battery Energy
Storage Systems (BESS) do not have the environmental
challenges of other technologies. These systems can often be
installed within a 12 month time frame. The BESS
installations can be housed inside a building or some other
facility close to the need and of very advantageous when the
location is in a city or neighborhood [4].
Because a BESS uses a power converter to change the
battery DC power to grid-compatible AC power the units can
respond very quickly to load changes on the system. Their
response times are about 20 milliseconds (little more than one
cycle) and their round trip efficiency is in the range of 60 to
80% [6].
Batteries, however, have some very unique challenges also.
Batteries store energy as an electro chemical process. During
an electrical charge and discharge cycle the temperature
change in the battery must be controlled or it can affect the
battery’s life expectancy. The type of battery being used will
determine how resistant it is to life degradation due to
temperature [4].
Another major concern is the batteries life-cycle. This is
defined as the number of charge/discharge cycles that a
battery can supply depending on the depth of discharge (DoD)
[3]. The battery/cycle application may require the BESS to
charge and discharge multiple times a day. As long as the
DoD is relatively low the batteries cycle life will remain
unaffected. However if the DoD is large then the battery life
cycle can be degraded. If the desired cycle life of a Ni-Cd
battery is 20,000 cycles then the DoD cannot be greater than
approximately 15%, as seen from Fig. 5. The maximum
discharge rate of the battery is also of concern because the
battery can also be damaged by using to high of a discharge
rate. Depending on the type of battery and its application the
discharge rate maybe its capacity divide by 4, 6 or even 10.
This limits the available current in the battery for immediate
use.
For power quality issues such as voltage regulation,
frequency control, short term interrupts and VAR support
these systems can be quite effective. They also maybe
effectively used as spinning reserve to the short duration peak
loads [3]. These daily peak demands usually only last about
an hour or less [5]. However without the ability to deep cycle,
the battery load leveling will be a challenge in the future
There are a number of battery energy storage systems that
currently exist including a 10 MW (40 MWh) facility in
Chino, California and a 20 MW (5 MWh) facility in Puerto
3
Rico [4][6][7]. Southern California Edison and EPRI
demonstrated the cost and benefits of a Lead Acid BESS for
load leveling, voltage, VAR, frequency control, and spinning
reserve duty [6]. The design of this system was to have daily
discharges of 10 MW for 4 hours to a 70% DoD. The
batteries where intended to last 2000 cycles. However after
only 890 cycles they had shown significant deterioration.
Until higher capacity batteries are developed that can handle
the deep cycling capabilities required by load leveling then
BESS will continue to have challenges in this area [3].
Some specific battery types like the Sodium Sulfur (NaS)
battery have been specifically designed for utility energy
storage applications. These batteries are designed to have a
relatively long life (15 years) and come in blocks that can
provide 1MW for 6-8 hours.
There are many new battery technologies that are being
developed to store more energy, last longer, and cost less than
the Lead Acid battery. Some of these new battery
technologies are Lithium Ion, Hydrogen Vanadium Redox,
Regenesys® Redox, Sodium Sulfur, Nickel Metal Hydride,
Nickel Cadmium, and Zinc Bromide [3][8][31].
B. Supercapacitor or Ultracapacitor
The super- or ultra-capacitor is not a new technology. It
has been around since the 1960’s [27][28]. The super- or
ultra-capacitor is an electrochemical double layer capacitor
(ECDL). The ultracapacitor is an electrochemical device.
There are no chemical reactions involved in the
ultracapacitor’s energy storage mechanism. This mechanism
is highly reversible, and allows the ultracapacitor to be
charged and discharged hundreds of thousands of times [26].
Some vendors advertise in the million plus cycle range [28].
The ultracapacitor is also temperature resistant with an
operating range between -40°C to +65°C and is also shock
and vibration resistant [27][28]. With these attributes the
ultracapacitor can be a highly effective energy storage device.
However it does have one large limitation. The ultracapacitor
has a relatively low energy density compared to a battery. Its
capability is usually on the order of a magnitude less energy
density than an equivalent battery. The power density
however is a much better in the ultracapacitor. The power
density for an ultracapacitor is a magnitude better than that of
a battery.

Fig. 5. Cycle Life of sintered/PBE Ni-Cd batteries [3]
Ultracapacitors are currently available in many sizes.
There current voltage ratings are up to as high as 2.7V with a
maximum string voltage of 1,500V [28]. In order to be a
viable alternative in a large scale energy storage system they
will need to be able to handle multiple kV. They can be use
for short term ride through capabilities as well as voltage
regulation, frequency control and other power quality issues.
The ultracapacitor is currently being considered as a
technology for the DOE Freedom Car 42V start-stop
application. Current challenges are the low energy density
and high cost of the system [24].
The ultracapacitor offers great promise because it has the
great attributes of a battery without the undesirable traits and
offers a round trip efficiency of 84-95% [8][28]. This
combined with the ability of modular, quiet, non-polluting,
quick charge and discharge capability, long life (10 to 12
years) and very high cycle life makes the ultracapacitor a very
desirable energy storage device.
There have been advances in the design of the
ultracapacitors using nano-tube technology to improve the
surface area of the capacitor. This “nano-tube ultracapacitor”
would improve the ultracapacitor’s energy density to be
compatible with that of a chemical battery [27].
C. Pumped Hydroelectric
Pumped-hydro storage has been in worldwide use for more
than 70 years. These large scale energy storage plants are the
most wide spread energy storage technology in use today [6].
There are 150 pumped storage facilities in the United States
and approximately 280 installations worldwide. They have a
combined generation capacity of about 90GW, which is about
3% of the world’s generating capacity [6][9][25].
Pumped-hydro units operate off the same principles of a
hydro-electric power plant. However their generator units
serve also as motors. During off peak hours the surplus
power water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher
level reservoir. Then during the times of high electrical
demand the water is released from the higher reservoir to turn
the turbine and produce electrical energy. They can produce a
large amount of energy for sustained periods of time. In
addition, these plants have round trip efficiencies in the range
of 70 to 80% [6][9]. Their storage capacity is dependent only
on the size of the reservoir. So instead of having only a few
hours of energy storage it could be days.
The major drawback to this design is the significant
amount of land required to create the reservoirs and the
elevation needed between them. Many of the desirable sites
are already in use and the others have encountered opposition
from environmental groups. There is however an alternative
to avoid the environmental impacts of the large reservoirs by
placing them underground. The use of underground pumped
hydro plants has been proven to be technically feasible, but
with the high costs associated with placing them underground
none currently exist today [6].
4
Pumped-hydro storage plants are costly and take a long
time to plan and build. One recently constructed pumped
hydro plant in the Alps took 30 years to plan and 7 years to
construct. This plant however is rated for 1.06 GW of power
and 8.5 GWh of energy storage capacity [9].
D. Compressed Air Energy Storage
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) systems use off
peak electrical power generated from base load plants or
renewable energy sources to compress air into underground
reservoir or surface vessel. Then during times of high
electrical demand this compressed air is combined with a one
of a variety of fuels to drive a turbine generator set. The
CAES plant uses two third less fuel compared to the
conventional units and is able to start up within tens of
minutes [10]. It does not require a lengthy startup time that
other spinning reserve may require, such as thermal units.
CAES plants require a large volume of compressed air to
operate for extended periods of time. The principle of storing
a gas underground is based off a proven method developed by
the oil & gas industry.
This technology has been proven to work in solution mined
salt caverns, conventionally mined hard rock caverns and
aquifers. As seen in Figure 6, in the United States over 75%
of its area is favorable to underground storage [6][11][12].
There are currently two CAES plants in operation today.
The first plant was built in Huntof, Germany in 1978. This
plant’s capacity is 290MW for 4 hours. It has a very
impressive performance record of 90% availability and 99%
starting reliability. The second was built in McIntosh,
Alabama in 1991. This plant’s capacity is 110MW for 26
hours. The round trip efficiency for the CAES plants
accounting for both thermal and electrical inputs is about 85%
[6][7][10][11][12][13][30].
The main key to a CAES system is the reservoir has to be
air tight and very large. Smaller units using above ground
storage tanks are usually limited in their energy storage
capacity to only a few hours [6]. In order to get a greater
efficiency or remove the need for an additional conventional
fuel there are many new hybrid CAES technologies being
developed. These new hybrid systems in development are use
supercapacitors, oil-hydraulics and pneumatics to increase the
efficiency of the design [14].

Fig. 6. Shaded Areas Favorable for Underground Storage [11]
Many of the parts that are needed to build a CAES system
are available off the shelf. The time to design and bring such
a plant on line is on the order of two years. The McIntosh,
Alabama plant took 2.5 years to build [6][12]. It also
incorporates a recuperator, that the Huntorf plant does not
have, that preheats the air prior to entering the turbine. This
reduces the plants fuel consumption by 25% [12].
E. Flywheels
Flywheels have had success in the commercial sector for
small units in the range of 1kW for 3 hours to 100kW for 30
second [6]. Flywheels store energy as kinetic energy in a
rotor that is spinning at extremely high velocities. The
amount of energy stored in the rotor is proportional to the
square of its angular momentum. As energy is needed the
flywheel switches operational modes to produce the power
needed [7]. This is done by using power electronics and a
sophisticated control system. One such application is the
Smart Energy Matrix which is composed of energy storage
modules (ESM) and energy conversion modules (ECM) by
Beacon Power [15].
With the advancement of technology in the rotor design as
well as the control systems Flywheel Energy Storage System
(FESS) have some useful qualities like the ability to respond
quickly to tens of thousands of cycles per year with high
durability [15]. This means they can respond to many power
quality issues such as frequency deviation, temporary
interruptions, voltage sags, and voltage swells [16]. By
providing this type of stability to the system using recycled
energy frees up other systems resources’ to provide power
instead of using them for these functions. FESS has an
overall round trip efficiency including the electronics,
bearings, and flywheel drag of 80-85%. With the life
expectancy of about 20 years [6][15], the current flywheel
designs are modular and can range in size up to 10 plus MW
systems, with the larger flywheels being approximately
250kW for 10 to 15 minutes [6][15].
Currently there are two pilot FESS projects under way by
the Department of Energy (DOE), California Energy
Commission (CEC) and the New York State Energy Research
5
and Development Authority (NYSERDA). These systems use
the Smart Energy Matrix (SEM) by Beacon Power in their
design. The New York project is connected to an industrial
site and the California project is connected to a transmission
line at a substation. Both projects are to demonstrate the
FESS capability to enhance power quality capabilities [17].
Not only is it more efficient to store existing power in the
FESS for later use but there is also the added benefit of using
it to improve system reliability and quality with its quick
response to system anomalies. In addition, there is an added
benefit of the release of system resources to produce power.
F. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
systems use superconducting magnets cryogenically cooled to
produce an essentially loss-less coil. The energy from the AC
system is converted and stored as DC energy in a
superconducting magnet. Upon needing power to be released
from the system the process is reversed and the DC is
converted to AC current through a Power Converter Module.
The efficiencies of these SMES systems have been reported to
be in the range of 95 to 98%. In addition, a large amount of
energy can be supplied to the power system in a matter of
milliseconds [6][7][18][19].
The superconducting magnet comes in two different
physical arrangements that of a toroid or a solenoid. The
original work of SMES system focused around large scale
systems configuration with much of the work centered on
designs in the range of 1,000 to 10,000 MWh [20]. The
estimated size for utilities applications was determined to be
5,000 MWh at 1,000 MW [18]. When these large systems
would be charged the superconducting coil expands under
Lorentz forces and would require a large amount of structure
to support the coil to offset these forces. In order to reduce
the cost it was determined that placing the coil in an earth
trench would be more cost effective [19]. The estimated cost
to build such a system in 1985 was US $980,000,000 [18].
The first operating SMES system with a three phase
converter was tested at Los Alamos National Laboratory
(LANL) in 1974 [21]. Then in 1976 a team from Bonneville
Power Authority (BPA) and LANL designed and constructed
a 30 MJ (8.33 kWh), 10 MW SMES unit. This unit was
installed in the BPA’s Tacoma Washington substation to
provide stability (damping of oscillations) to the Pacific
Intertie [19][21]. It was installed in 1981 and only operated
for a short period of time. During the time of construction it
was determined that by phase controlling part of the converter
on the DC link could also damp the oscillations [21].
Since that time there have been many installations of
smaller SMES units in the range of 1-3 MJ (277.8-833.3
MWh), with power outputs as high as 2.5 MW [21]. These
units not only provide energy storage for short-term power
quality issues but they can also be sized to provide for longer
durations of uninterrupted power. These larger designs can
provide load leveling and spinning reserve for longer periods
of time. They can respond to system variations within
milliseconds. Other than very large pumped-hydro plants, the
SMES large designs proposed are the only energy storage

device that can accommodate the large bulk power load
leveling applications with high efficiency. Other storage
devices cannot come close to the amount of power and
duration that these systems can supply.
G. Hydrogen
Hydrogen is not an energy storage device but an energy
carrier [32][34]. An energy carrier can be defined as a
substance or phenomenon that can be charged to store energy.
Hydrogen is such a substance and must be extracted from
hydrocarbon compounds or water. Other than these two
forms hydrogen is relatively rare on Earth. It is lighter than
air and escapes our atmosphere. Hydrogen can be obtained
by electrolysis or reforming processes. These processes
however are costly and require the use of a primary energy
source such as fossil fuels, nuclear energy, or renewable
energy [32].
Hydrogen can be stored in storage tanks because its high
mass energy density leakage from the storage tank is
insignificant [33]. Hydrogen’s ability to be stored,
transported and used as a fuel is what many call the Hydrogen
Economy. A hydrogen-based storage system would include
several basic system components, including an electrolyzer
system to produced hydrogen via water electrolysis, a
hydrogen storage system (steel tanks or geologic storage), and
a system to convert hydrogen back into electricity (fuel cell or
internal combustion engine). This system follows the
traditional method of producing margin by having generators
on line incase of need. In addition the hydrogen fuel cell
system can not respond to emergency and momentary power
needs without the use of energy storage devices [33][35].
IV. CONCLUSION
It can be seen from Appendix I that there are numerous
options to energy storage systems. Depending on the
technology and application needs they can assist in spinning
reserves, load leveling and shifting, load forecasting,
frequency control, VAR support and voltage regulation, relief
of overloaded transmission lines, release of system capacity,
power quality issues, and more effective and efficient use of
capital resources. By locating energy storage facilities
appropriately throughout the transmission grid they can help
stabilize the system by translating the power from the remote
generation units closer to the load. They can provide many of
the power quality and system regulation duties.
By reinforcing the grid with energy storage devices at
different levels it is possible to create a true infinite bus for a
limited time so that the grid can continue to function
effectively even through short-term emergencies.
The volatility of the hourly forecasting of emergency
power needs can also be curtailed by the use of energy
storage. The pattern shown by the storage of natural gas in
the natural gas market can be a template for the electrical
market [11]. With the reserves allocated to storage,
forecasting will be possible on a daily, weekly, or even
monthly basis. Capital equipment such as base and
intermediate units will be able to operate at their highest
6
efficiency levels. Any excess power will be captured by the
energy storage devices for later use.
Utilization of renewable energy such as solar, wind and
tidal will become a reality due to the enabling technology of
energy storage devices. No matter when or where it is needed
in the system it could be made available for use.
This evolutionary change of adding large, medium and
small scale energy storage devices to the power system in key
locations will be a major step in the solution to the use of
renewable energy along with the current issues of reliability,
stability, and power quality.
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 7

[19] Cesar A. Luongo,” Superconducting Storage Systems: An Overview,” professor of Engineering at the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado and
IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 32, No. 4, pp.2214-2223, July the Site Director for Power Systems Engineering Research Center. Dr. Sen is a
1996. Registered Professional Engineer in Colorado. His research interests include
[20] Robert J. Loyd, Susan M. Schoenung, Takashi Nakamura, William V. application problems in electrical power systems, electrical safety and arc,
Hassenzahl, John D. Rogers, John R. Purcell, Dennis W. Lieurance and machines, renewable energy and distributed generation and power engineering
M. A. Hilal,” Design Advances in Superconducting Magnetic Energy education.
Storage for Electric Utility Load Leveling,” IEEE Transactions on
Magnetics, vol. MAG-23, No. 2, pp.1323-1330, March 1987.
[21] Warren Buckles and William V. Hassenzahl,” Superconducting Magnetic Benjamin Kroposki (S’90, M’93, SM’00)
Energy Storage,” IEEE Power Engineering Review, pp.16-20, May 2000. received his BS and MS in Electrical Engineering
[22] Adeel Ghayur,” Role of Satellites for Renewable Energy Generation from Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA in 1990 and
Technologies in Urban Regional and Urban Settings,” IEEE 2006 1992 respectively and is pursuing a Ph.D. from the
International Conference on Advances in Space Technologies, pp.157- Colorado School of Mines. Mr. Kroposki is a senior
161, September 2006. engineer at the National Renewable Energy
[23] You Seok Son,” Dispatchable Wind Power Valuation in Texas,” IEEE Laboratory (NREL) and leader of the Distributed
Power Engineering Society General Meeting, vol. 2, Page(s): 1944-1947, Power Systems Integration Team. HE serves as Chairman for IEEE P1547.4
June 2005. “Guide for Design, Operation, and Integration of Distributed Resource Island
[24] FY 2006 Progress Report for Energy Storage Research and Development, Systems with Electrical Power Systems” and is a Registered Professional
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, January Engineer in Colorado.
2007
[25] [Online]. October 2007, Available: http://www.eia.doe.gov/, Energy
Information Agency
[26] [Online]. October 2007, Available:http://www.ultracapacitors.org/,
Ultracapacitors.org.
[27] [Online]. October 2007, Available:
http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2006/batteries-0208.html, MIT Tech Talk,
February
[28] [Online].October 2007, Available:
http://www.maxwell.com/ultracapacitors, Maxwell Technologies
[29] S. Muthukumar, Sandeep Kakumanu, S. Sriram and V. Jayashankar,
“Energy Storage Considerations for a Stand-alone Wave Energy Plant,”
2005 IEEE International Conference on Electric Machines and Drives,
pp.193-198, May 2005.
[30] Richard Baxter, “Energy Storage in Today’s Power Market,” Commodities
Now, September 2002. [Online]. Available:
http://www.energystoragecouncil.org
[31] Phillip C. Symons, “Opportunities for Energy Storage in Stressed
Electrical Supply Systems,” IEEE Power Engineering Society Winter
meeting, vol. 1, pp. 448-449, July 2001.
[32] [Online].November 2007, Available: http://www.wikipdeia.org/wiki,
Wikipedia Encyclopedia.
[33] Kodjo Agbossou, Mohanlal Kolhe, Jean Hamelin, Tapan K. Bose,
“Performance of a Stand-Alone Renewable Energy System Based on
Energy Storage as Hydrogen,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion,
vol. 19, No. 3, September 2004.
[34] Benjamin Kroposki, Johanna Levene, Kevin Harrison, P.K. Sen, Frank
Novachek, “Electrolysis: Opportunities for Electric Power Utilities in a
Hydrogen Economy,” IEEE 38th North American Power Symposium,
September 2006
[35] Henry Louie, Kai Strunz, “Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
(SMES) for Energy Cache Control in Modular Distributed Hydrogen-
Electric Energy System,” IEEE Transactions on Applied
Superconductivity, vol. 17, No. 2, June 2007.

VI. BIOGRAPHIES
Steven C. Smith received his B.S. and M.S.
degrees in Electrical Engineering from the University
of Colorado at Boulder in 1991 and 2000 respectively.
He is currently working on his PhD in Engineering
Systems (Electrical) at the Colorado School of Mines.
His research interests include energy storage,
renewable energy, power generation and distribution
systems, motors and power electronics. Mr. Smith is
a Chief Systems Engineer with Lockheed Martin
Corporation and is a Registered Professional Engineer
in Oregon.

P.K. Sen (SM’90) received his Ph.D. in EE at the

Technical University of Nova Scotia (Dalhousie
University), Halifax, Canada. Dr. Sen is currently a
 8

Appendix I

Comparison of Large Scale Energy Storage Devices