Chapter 4

AC Machinery Fundamentals
Contents
• Simple Loop in a uniform Magnetic Field

• The Voltage Induced in a Simple Rotating Loop

• Alternative way to express induced voltage

• Torque Induced in a Current-Carrying Loop

• The Rotating Magnetic Field

• Induced Voltage in AC Machines

• AC Machine Power Flows and Losses

• Power Flow Diagram

• Voltage Regulation and Speed Regulation

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Simple Loop in a uniform Magnetic Field

Front view View of coil.

(c)

(a) (b)

(a) Velocities and orientations of the sides of the loop with respect to the magnetic field.
(b) The direction of motion with respect to the magnetic field for side ab.
(c) The direction of motion with respect to the magnetic field for side cd.

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The Voltage Induced in a Simple Rotating Loop
eind = (v x B) · l
1. Segment ab: The velocity of the wire is tangential to the path of rotation, while the magnetic field B points to
the right, as shown in Figure 4-2 b. The quantity v x B points into the page, which is the same direction as seg-
ment ab. Therefore, induced voltage on this segment of the wire is eba = (v x B) • l = vBl sin θab into the page

2. Segment bc: In the first half of this segment, the quantity v x B points into the page, and in the second half of
this segment, the quantity v x B points out of the page. Since the length l is in the plane of the page, v x B is per-
pendicular to l for both portions of the segment. Therefore, the voltage in segment be will be zero: ecb = 0

3. Segment cd: The velocity of the wire is tangential to the path of rotation, while the magnetic field B points to
the right, as shown in Figure 4-2c. The quantity v x B points into the page, which is the same direction as segment
cd. Therefore, the induced voltage on this segment of the wire is
edc = (v x B)· I = vBI sin θcd out of the page

4. Segment da. Just as in segment bc, v x B is perpendicular to l. Therefore, the voltage in this segment will be
zero too: ead = 0
Total induced voltage on the loop eind is the sum of the voltages on each of its sides: vBl sin θab + vBl sin θad
Note that θab = 180 - θcd and recalling the trigonometric identity sin θ = sin (180 -θ).

Therefore, the induced voltage becomes eind = 2vBL sin θ

The resulting voltage eind is shown as a function of time in Figure 4-3.

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Alternative way to express induced voltage
θ = wt
Also, tangential velocity v of the edges of the loop can be expressed as
v = rw (4-7)
where r is the radius from axis of rotation out to the edge of the loop, and
w is the angular velocity of the loop.
Substituting these expressions into Eq. (4-6) gives
eind = 2rwBI sin wt (4-8)

Notice also that the area A of the loop is just equal to 2rl,
Therefore, eind = AB w sin wt (4-9)
Finally, note that the maximum flux through the loop occurs when the loop is
perpendicular to the magnetic flux density lines. This flux is just the product of
the loop's surface area and the flux density through the loop.
φmax = AB (4-10)
Therefore, the final form of the voltage equation is

eind = φmax w sin wt (4-11)

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Torque Induced in a Current-Carrying Loop

τab = ilB.rSinθab

(a) (b)
τcd = ilB.rSinθcd Figure 4-4:
A current-carrying loop in a uniform
magnetic field.
Figure 4-5: (a) Front view;
(a) Derivation of force and torque on segment ab. (b) view of coil
(b) Derivation of force and torque on segment bc.
(c) Derivation of force and torque on segment cd.
(d) Derivation of force and torque on segment da.

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cont
Force on each segment of the loop will be given by Equation (1-43),

F = i(l x B) (1-43)
where i = magnitude of current in the segment
l = length of segment, with direction of l in direction of current flow
B = magnetic flux density vector.

The torque on that segment will then be given by

T = (force applied) (perpendicular distance)
= (F) (r sin θ) = rF sin θ (1-6)

where θ is the angle between the vector r and the vector F. The direction of the
torque is clockwise if it would tend to cause a clockwise rotation and counter-
clockwise if it would tend to cause a counterclockwise rotation.

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cont
Total induced torque on the loop τind is sum of the torques on each of its sides
τind = rilB sin θab + rilB sin θcd
Note that θab = θcd, so the induced torque becomes
τind = 2rilB sin θ (4-17)

The resulting torque τind is shown in Figure 4-6. Note that the torque is maxi-
mum when the plane of the loop is parallel to the magnetic field, and the torque
is zero when the plane of the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

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The Rotating Magnetic Field
• If two magnetic fields are present, then a torque will be created which will tend to line up the
two magnetic fields.

• If one magnetic field is produced by the stator of a machine and the other one is produced by
the rotor of the machine, then a torque will be induced in the rotor which will cause the rotor
to turn and align itself with the stator magnetic field.

• The fundamental principle of ac machine operation is that if a 3-phase set of currents, each of
equal magnitude and differing in phase by 120°, flows in a 3-phase winding, then it will pro-
duce a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude.

FIGURE 4-8
(a) A simple 3-phase stator, Currents
in this stator are assumed positive if
they flow into the unprimed end and
out the primed end of the coils.The
magnetizing intensities produced by
each coil are also shown.
(b) The magnetizing intensity vector
Haa’(t) produced by a current flowing
in coil aa'.

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Concept of the rotating magnetic field
Coil currents

Magnetic field
Intensities

Since B =μH
Flux densities

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cont

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cont
• Although the direction of the magnetic field has changed, the magnitude is constant.

• Magnetic field is maintaining a constant magnitude while rotating in a counterclockwise

direction.

• If the current in any of two of the windings is reversed, the direction of rotation of the
magnetic field will be reversed

Relationship between Electrical frequency and speed of rotation of magnetic field

where fe = frequency of the field (current) in Hz (typically 60 Hz)

nm = mechanical speed of rotation in revs per minute
P = number of poles pairs

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Magnetomotive Force and Flux Distribution On AC Machines

(a) AC machine with a cylindrical rotor.

(b) AC machine with a salient-pole rotor
FIGURE 4-14
(b) The magnetomotive force distribu-
tion resulting from the winding, com-
pared to an ideal distribution.

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Induced Voltage in AC Machines

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AC Machine Power Flows and Losses
The efficiency of an ac machine is defined by

The losses that occur in ac machines can be divided into four categories:
1. Electrical or copper losses (I2R losses)
2. Core losses
3. Mechanical losses
4. Stray load losses

The mechanical power that is converted is given by:

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Power Flow Diagram

(a) The power-flow diagram of a 3-phase ac generator.

(b) The power-flow diagram of a 3-phase ac motor.

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Voltage Regulation and Speed Regulation
Voltage regulation (VR) is a measure of the ability of a generator to keep a
constant voltage at its terminals as load varies.

where Vnl is the no-load terminal voltage of the generator and

Vfl is the full-load terminal voltage of the generator

Speed regulation (SR) is a measure of the ability of a motor to keep a constant

shaft speed as load varies.

or

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