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OPERATIONAL PLANS AND PROCEDURES

FOR MANNED SPACE FLIGHT

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 OPERATIONAL PLANS AND PROCEDmES FOR MANNED SPACE FLiGhT

By John D. Hodgeit

INTRODUCTION

The p r e s e n t paper i s a d i s c u s s i o n of many f a c e t s of t h e o p e r a t i o n s

n e c e s s a r y t o s u p p o r t t h e U. S. manned space f l i g h t programs. Operations
means many t h i n g s t o many people. I n t h i s p a p e r it i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be
a two-fold f u n c t i o n . The f i r s t p a r t i s p l a n n i n g which e n t a i l s t h e t o t a l
p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e mission b e f o r e t h e f a c t . Table I i s a l i s t of some
of t h e f a c e t s of t h i s p l a n n i n g f u n c t i o n . It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t
approximately 20,000 p e r s o n s p a r t i c i p a t e i n a Mercury m i s s i o n as d i r e c t
o p e r a t i o n a l s u p p o r t . These people come from i n d u s t r y , NASA, o t h e r
c i v i l i a n a g e n c i e s , t h e Department of Defense, and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . The
importance of t h i s planning f u n c t i o n cannot be overemphasized. The
d e t a i l which t h i s planning i n v o l v e s such a s schediiling, t r a i n i n g , co-
~

o r d i n a t i o n , and p r e p a r a t i o n of p r o c e d u r e s , c o n t r i b u t e s l a r g e l y t o t h e
silccess of an o p e r a t i o n . The second f u n c t i o n i s t h e c a r r y i n g o u t of
t h e a c t u a l o p e r a t i o n . I n t h i s paper t h e v a r i o u s phases of t h e Mercury
o p e r a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d . Also an o u t l i n e of t h e proposed Gemini and
Apollo programs and t h e f u t u r e of o p e r a t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d . Although
t h e p l a n n i n g phase i s c o n t i n u o u s , and e s s e n t i a l l y b e g i n s a t t h e com-
mencement of t h e program, t h e d i r e c t o p e r a t i o n i s assumed t o b e g i n when
t h e s p a c e c r a f t and t h e launch v e h i c l e a r r i v e a t t h e launch s i t e .

S i n c e t h e Mercury s p a c e c r a f t and t h e A t l a s launch v e h i c l e a r e w e l l

known, t h e y a r e o n l y d e s c r i b e d b r i e f l y . f i g u r e 1 shows t h e Mercury
s p a c e c r a f t and i t s b a s i c systems. The emergency escape tower s e p a r a t e s
t h e s p a c e c r a f t from t h e launch v e h i c l e should a malfunction occur b e f o r e
1
2- minutes a f t e r l i f t - o f f . A f t e r t h i s t i m e , s e p a r a t i o n of t h e s p a c e c r a f t
2
from t h e l a u n c h v e h i c l e i s accomplished by f i r i n g t h e p o s i g r a d e r o c k e t s
which a r e l o c a t e d n e a r t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s .

The c o n i c a l s e c t i o n (antenna housing) c o n t a i n s t h e drogue p a r a c h u t e ,

a n t e n n a s , and h o r i z o n s c a n n e r s .

The c y l i n d r i c a l s e c t i o n (recovery compartment) c o n t a i n s t h e main

and r e s e r v e p a r a c h u t e s and t h e p i t c h and yaw t h r u s t e r s .
~~
~

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“ A s s t . Chief f o r F l i g h t Control, F l i g h t Operations D i v i s i o n ,
NASA Manned S p a c e c r a f t Center.
2

The a f t e r b o d y c o n t a i n s a l l t h e systems n e c e s s a r y t o s u p p o r t t h e
a s t r o n a u t , t h a t i s , t h e environmental c o n t r o l system, e l e c t r i c a l system,
communications system, automatic s t a b i l i z a t i o n and c o n t r o l system, and
a l l associated instrumentation.

The forebody c o n t a i n s t h e h e a t s h i e l d , t h e l a n d i n g bag, and t h e

major p o r t i o n of t h e r e a c t i o n c o n t r o l system.

The retropackage a t t a c h e d t o t h e h e a t s h i e l d c o n t a i n s t h r e e p o s i -
grade r o c k e t s and t h r e e r e t r o g r a d e r o c k e t s and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d i g n i t e r s
and w i r i n g . The high-frequency antenna and a few s p e c i a l experiments
a r e located i n t h e retropackage.

F i g i r e 2 shows t h e launch v e h i c l e s used f o r Mercury m i s s i o n s .

The L i t t l e J o e v e h i c l e s were used f o r r e s e a r c h and development t e s t s ,
and t h e Redstone was used f o r e a r l y b a l l i s t i c f l i g h t s . The launch
v e h i c l e used f o r o r b i t a l f l i g h t s i s a modified A t l a s D . The Mercury
s p a c e c r a f t i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e launch v e h i c l e by means o f a s p e c i a l
a d a p t e r . The A t l a s s t a n d s 67 f e e t 4 i n c h e s , b u t w i t h t h e s p a c e c r a f t
i t i s 95 f e e t I+ i n c h e s i n h e i g h t . The A t l a s h a s two s t a g e s w i t h f i v e
engines : two b o o s t e r e n g i n e s , one s i i s t a i n e r e n g i n e , and two v e r n i e r
e n g i n e s . The two b o o s t e r engines a r e j e t t i s o n e d a t s t a g i n g , l e a v i n g
t h e s n s t a i n e r and t h e two v e r n i e r s t o p l a c e t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n t o o r b i t .
The t o t a l t h r i i s t i s 360,000 pounds, which i s o b t a i n e d by b u r n i n g
kerosene and l i q i i i d oxygen. The A t l a s D has o b t a i n e d a high d e g r e e of
performance, and i t s r e l i a b i l i t y has been v e r y s a t i s f a c t o r y i n t h e
Mercury program.

The sequence of e v e n t s d u r i n g a normal Mercury mission a r e i l l u s -

t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 3. A f t e r l i f t - o f f , t h e Mercury-Atlas proceeds on a
programed t u r n f o r a b o u t 2 minutes 10 seconds. A t t h i s t i m e , t h e two
b o o s t e r engines a r e s h u t down and j e t t i s o n e d . Twenty seconds l a t e r ,
t h e e s c a p e tower i s j e t t i s J n e d . The A t l a s c o n t i n u e s t o a c c e l e r a t e , by
u s i n g t h e s u s t a i n e r e n g i n e , t o an a l t i t u d e of 87 n a u t i c a l m i l e s and a
f l i g h t - p a t h a n g l e of 0". A t t h i s t i m e , t h e s u s t a i n e r and v e r n i e r
engines shut down. This sequence o c c u r s aboiit 427 n a u t i c a l miles from
Cape Canaveral, E'la. The apogee, or h i g h e s t a l t i t u d e , ?f t h e s p a c e c r a f t
i s approximately 148 n a u t i c a l m i l e s . The o r b i t a l i n s e r t i o n c o n d i t i o n s
lo
mentioned d i l l c i e c e t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n t o an o r b i t a l i n c l i n a t i o n o f 32-.
2
When SECO, or s u s t a i n e r engine c u t o f f , occiirs, t h e s p a c e c r a f t
s e p a r a t e s from t h e A t l a s and t h e a s t r o n a u t yaws t h e s p a c e c r a f t 180",
p l a c i n g t h e h e a t s h i e l d toward t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e o r b i t a l motion.
If t h e o r b i t a l i n s e r t i o n c o n d i t i o n s a r e met, t h e s p a c e c r a f t can con-
t i n u e f o r t h e planned number of o r b i t s . S o f a r , t h e United S t a t e s h a s
completed two t h w e - o r b i t m i s s i o n s and one s i x - o r b i t m i s s i o n and i s
p r e s e n t l y planning a one-day m i s s i o n i n t h e near f u t u r e .
 3

The a t t i t u d e s of t h e s p a c e c r a f t may be c o n t r o l l e d a u t o m a t i c a l l y
by t h e a u t o m a t i c s t a b i l i z a t i o n and c o n t r o l system, o r by t h e astronz7Jt
u s i n g t'ne fly-by-wire o r manuai p r o p o r t i o n a l systems.

When it i s desired t o terminate t h e mission, t h e a s t r o n a u t a l i n e s

t h e s p a c e c r a f t t o a p i t c h down (-34") a t t i t u d e and normally s e l e c t s t h e
a u t o m a t i c system f o r r e t r o f i r e . The r e t r o r o c k e t s reduce t h e o r b i t a l
v e l o c i t y from 25,735 f t / s e c t o 25,300 f t / s e c , a r e d u c t i o n of o n l y
435 f t / s e c , b u t s u f f i c i e n t t o i n i t i a t e t h e p r o p e r b a l l i s t i c r e e n t r y
which c a u s e s t h e s p a c e c r a f t t o land approximately 3,000 m i l e s beyond
t h e p o i n t of r e t r o f i r e .

A t a n a l t i t u d e of 10,000 f e e t t h e main p a r a c h u t e i s deployed, and

1 2 seconds l a t e r t h e l a n d i n g bag, which i s a'pneumatic d e v i c e which
a t t e n u a t e s t h e shock of impact on t h e water, i s r e l e a s e d .

I n t h i s s e c t i o n , t h e v a r i o u s phases of t h e o p e r a t i o n s f o r a
Mercury-Atlas f l i g h t a r e d e s c r i b e d .

P r e f l i g h t Operations

The p r e f l i g h t phase b e g i n s when t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s d e l i v e r e d t o t h e

l a u n c h s i t e and ends a t l i f t - o f f . T h i s p e r i o d v a r i e s from mission t o
m i s s i o n , b u t t h e average i s about f o u r months. The s p a c e c r a f t and
l a u n c h v e h i c l e a r e f i r s t checked out i n d e t a i l , system by system, and
independent of each o t h e r . A t t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h e s e d e t a i l e d systems
t e s t s , a combined systems t e s t i s conducted, w i t h t h e s p a c e c r a f t u s i n g
a l a u n c h - v e h i c l e s i m u l a t o r and t h e l a u n c h v e h i c l e u s i n g a s p a c e c r a f t
s i m u l a t o r . About 2 t o 3 weeks b e f o r e launch, a g a i n depending upon t h e
m i s s i o n , t h e v e h i c l e s are moved t o t h e launch pad and mated.

Launch Pad Operations

The many t e s t s involved i n t h i s phase of t h e o p e r a t i o n s a r e as

follows :

1. Launch complex checkout

2. Interface inspection

3. Mechanical mating

4. S p a c e c r a f t systems t e s t
4

5. E l e c t r i c a l i n t e r f a c e and a b o r t s

6. F l i g h t acceptance composite t e s t s

7. F l i g h t c o n f i g u r a t i o n sequence and a b o r t s

8. Launch s i m u l a t i o n

9. Simulated f l i g h t

10. Spacecraft servicing

11. Frecount, p y r o t e c h n i c hookup, and count

A f t e r t h e f i r s t seven t e s t s i n t h e l i s t a r e completed, t h e simu-

l a t e d f l i g h t i s t h e f i n a l t e s t which completely checks a l l s p a c e c r a f t
systems d u r i n g a s i m u l a t e d f l i g h t from l i f t - o f f t o l a n d i n g . The t e s t
a l s o permits a check of t h e a u t o m a t i c l a u n c h - v e h i c l e a b o r t system.

Under some circumstances, a f l i g h t - r e a d i n e s s f i r i n g i s performed

d u r i n g which a l l t h e A t l a s e n g i n e s z r e i g n i t e d f o r a p e r i o d of 20 seconds
t o a n a l y z e t h e o v e r a l l Mercury-Atlas systems c o n f i g u r a t i o n .

Precount, P y r o t e c h n i c , and Launch Count

The countdown i s performed i n two p a r t s . The f i r s t p a r t , known a s

t h e precount, i s p r i m a r i l y a check o f t h e v a r i o u s s p a c e c r a f t systems.

Following completion o f t h i s f i r s t p a r t of t h e countdown, t h e r e

i s an approximate l5-hour h o l d f o r p y r o t e c h n i c check, e l e c t r i c a l
connection, and peroxide-system s e r v i c i n g and s u r v e i l l a n c e . During t h e
launch count a l l systems a r e e n e r g i z e d and f i n a l o v e r a l l checks a r e
made. The countdown b e g i n s again a t T-330 minutes by i n s t z l l i n g and
connecting t h e e s c a p e - r o c k e t i g n i t e r . All systems are checked and t h e
a s t r o n a u t i s i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t a t T-135 minutes. A t T-90
minutes the h a t c h i s b o l t e d , and a t T-35 minutes t h e launch v e h i c l e i s
f i l l e d with l i q u i d oxygen. A t T-IO minutes t h e s p a c e c r a f t changes from
e x t e r n a l t o i n t e r n a l power and a t T-3 minutes t h e launch v e h i c l e a l s o
s w i t c h e s t o i n t e r n a l power. A t T-35 seconds t h e s p a c e c r a f t i u n b i l i c a l
i s e j e c t e d , and a t T-0 t h e Mercury-Atlas combination l i f t s o f f .

F l i g h t Operations

The f o l l o w i n g paragraphs a r e a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e o p e r a t i o n s which

occiir immediately p r i o r t o and diiring t h e actual. f l i g h t .
 5

About 2 weeks b e f o r e t h e launch, t h e f l i g h t c o n t r o l teams a r e

deployed t o t h e many t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s around t h e world. They begin
p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n network checkouts and s i m u l a t i o n s which a s s u r e e q u i p -
ment mc? p e r c c x e l yeadinesc.. The s i m i i 1 a t . i ons a r e of many t y p e s :
t h o s e which check o u t t h e Mercury Control C e n t e r and a s t r o n a u t f o r a b o r t
procedures; t h o s e which check o u t t h e r e e n t r y s i t e s f o r r e t r o f i r e
d e c i s i o n s and procedures; and those which check o u t t h e e n t i r e World-
wide Mercury Network f o r equipment, communications, and f l i g h t - c o n t r o l
o p e r a t i n g procedures.

The Mercury Network, shown i n f i g u r e 4, c o n s i s t s of t h e Mercury

C o n t r o l Center a t Cape Canaveral, F l a . , t h e Communication and
Computing Center a t Goddard Space F l i g h t C e n t e r , G r e e n b e l t , M d . , and
o t h e r t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s around t h e world which a r e l o c a t e d a l o n g t h e
s p a c e c r a f t ' s o r b i t a l ground t r a c k . The Mercury C o n t r o l Center i s t h e
command and c o n t r o l s t a t i o n which makes most o f t h e d e c i s i o n s which
a f f e c t t h e f l i g h t . The Communication and Computing Center i s t h e
c e n t r a l agency f o r r e l a y i n g a l l t e l e t y p e and v o i c e communications from
a l l t h e t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s and f o r d o i n g most of t h e computing f o r
s p a c e c r a f t - t r a j e c t o r y purposes dusing a l l phases of f l i g h t .

The remaining t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s around t h e world a r e r e f e r r e d t o

a s t h e "remote s i t e s " and t h e y provide m o n i t o r i n g c a p a b i l i t y needed for
r e l a y i n g t e l e m e t r y , r a d a r , and v o i c e d a t a back t o t h e Mercury C o n t r o l
Center.

The r e c o v e r y f o r c e s a r e a l s o deployed a t a b o u t t h e same t i m e , and

t h e y p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l and combined recovery e x e r c i s e s i n
a manner s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e Mercury Network.

On t h e f i n a l day, a l l o p e r a t i o n a l f o r c e s p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e
a c t u a l launch countdown which i s f u l l y c o o r d i n a t e d and synchronized.

The i n - f l i g h t phase b e g i n s a t l i f t - o f f and c o n t i n u e s through

l a n d i n g . The Operations D i r e c t o r , s i t u a t e d i n t h e Mercury C o n t r o l
C e n t e r , i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e o v e r a l l o p e r a t i o n . He i s supported by
a s t a f f and o r g a n i z a t i o n a s shown i n f i g u r e 5 . The mission i s super-
v i s e d , u s i n g a c e n t r a l i z e d c o n t r o l technique where a l l major d e c i s i o n s
a
a r e made a t t h e Mercury Control Center. T h i s i d e a l i z e d s i t u a t i o n , o f
c o u r s e , i s n o t always f e a s i b l e and procedures a r e e s t a b l i s h e d t o i n s u r e
t i m e l y a c t i o n i n t h e e v e n t of c o n t i n g e n c i e s i f communications w i t h t h e
Mercury C o n t r o l Center a r e broken. For t h e Mercury m i s s i o n , by f a r t h e
most c r i t i c a l time p e r i o d i s t h e powered-flight phase. During t h i s p e r i o d
t h e dynamic c o n d i t i o n s a r e changing c o n t i n u o u s l y , and a t a l l times a c t i o n s
i n t h e e v e n t of malfunctions must be lmiiediatcly a v a i l a b l e t o a s s i s t t h e
f l i g h t c o n t r o l l e r s and t h e a s t r o n a u t i n t a k i n g t h e proper c o r r e c t i v e
s t e p s . A s e t o f mission r u l e s i s p r e p a r e d p r i o r t o t h e mission t o cover
6

a l l r e c o g n i z a b l e s i t u a t i o n s . O f c o u r s e , o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s which have n o t
been recognized w i l l occur from time t o t i m e , and t h e main purpose of
t h e e x t e n s i v e s i m u l a t i o n and t r a i n i n g program i s a l l o w t h e f l i g h t con-
t r o l l e r s t o make t h e c o r r e c t d e c i s i o n s under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
Probably t h e s i n g l e most c r i t i c a l f u n c t i o n which i s performed i s t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e o r b i t a l parameters immediately a f t e r t h e c u t o f f .
It i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e o r b i t c a p a b i l i t y of t h e v e h i c l e be r a p i d l y
determined s o t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n t o c0ntinu.e or t o r e e n t e r immediately
i n an a b o r t o r contingency l a n d i n g a r e a can be made. F i g u r e 6 i s t h e
p l o t which i s used t o a s s i s t i n making t h i s d e c i s i o n . It i s d e r i v e d by
a computer and may use a number of t r a c k i n g s o u r c e s . A s u i t a b l e o r b i t
i s obtained i f t h e v e l o c i t y r a t i o and t h e f l i g h t - p a t h a n g l e a r e w i t h i n
t h e lens-shaped a r e a on t h e r i g h t - h a n d s i d e .

During t h e o r b i t a l phase, t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l f u n c t i o n s t o be per-

formed, although i n g e n e r a l , d e c i s i o n making i s not always as c r i t i c a . 1
as it i s during t h e powered-flight phase. Both t h e a s t r o n a u t and t h e
ground system c o n t i n u o u s l y monitor t h e v e h i c l e , i t s s t a t u s , and t h e
f l i g h t plan. Trends a r e e s t a b l i s h e d which determine whether o r not a
p o t e n t i a l contingency e x i s t s . A t a l l times t h e a s t r o n a u t i s informed
of t h e c o r r e c t r e t r o f i r e time t o a c h i e v e a l a n d i n g i n a contingency
l a n d i n g a r e a . (The manner i n which t h e v a r i o u s l a n d i n g a r e a s a r e
e s t a b l i s h e d i s d i s c u s s e d i n a subsequent s e c t i o n of t h i s p a p e r . ) It
i s important t o remember t h e s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t t h a t t h e a s t r o n a u t p l a y s
i n t h e s u c c e s s f u l completion of a m i s s i o n . The s p a c e c r a f t has many
modes o f o p e r a t i o n and t h e a s t r o n a u t i s a systems manager. A s t h e
s i t u a t i o n o r f l i g h t p l a n d i c t a t e s , he i s a b l e t o s e l e c t t h e b e s t mode
o f o p e r a t i o n and t o c o n t r o l h i s consumables i n t h e d e s i r e d manner.
Under many abnormal c o n d i t i o n s , h i s presence enhances t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
t h a t t h e mission w i l l c o n t i n u e t o t h e s u c c e s s f u l accomplishment of a l l
planned o b j e c t i v e s . During t h i s o r b i t a l p e r i o d , t h e f l i g h t c o n t r o l l e r s
a t t h e remote s i t e s a c t a s t h e eyes and t h e e a r s of t h e Mercury C o n t r o l
C e n t e r , and a f t e r t h e s p a c e c r a f t has passed over t h e s t a t i o n , t h e y
t r a n s m i t summary r e p o r t s t o t h e Mercury C o n t r o l C e n t e r . A t t h e r e q u i r e d
t i m e , p r e p a r a t i o n s a r e made f o r t h e r e t r o f i r e maneuver which may be
c o n t r o l l e d e i t h e r manually o r a u t o m a t i c a l l y . F i r i n g of t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s
can be accomplished by t h e onboard c l o c k , by t h e a s t r o n a u t h i m s e l f , o r
by ground command. The e s t i m a t e d l a n d i n g p o s i t i o n i s determined e i t h e r
by r a d a r t r a c k i n g o r by u t i l i z i n g t e l e m e t r y i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d d u r i n g A

t h e p e r i o d o f r e t r o f i r e . The r e c o v e r y f o r c e s a r e t h e n a l e r t e d a s t o t h e
e s t i m a t e d l a n d i n g p o s i t i o n . They a r e p r e p a r e d t o l o c a t e and r e t r i e v e
t h e s p a c e c r a f t and a s t r o n a u t a f t e r l a n d i n g .

Recovery O p e r a t i o n s

The recovery o p e r a t i o n i s planned around t h e concept t h a t t h e r e a r e

s e v e r a l discreLc a r e a s a l o n g t h e ground t r a c k which a r e p r e f e r r e d l a n d i n g
a r e a s . These a r e a s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e r a l c a t e g o r i e s . F i r s t , t h e
 7

launch s i t e recovery a r e a i s s e l e c t e d t o r e t r i e v e t h e a s t r o n a u t i f an
a b o r t were t o occur e i t h e r b e f o r e l i f t - o f f o r d u r i n g t h e f i r s t few
seconds of powered f l i g h t . During t h i s p e r i o d , most of t h e l a n d i n g s
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U I V U I I U L U W l L l . U L " L . _ I L L L L A U L L U Y

a r e d e p i c t e d i n f i g u r e 7. Along the launch t r a c k , s e v e r a l a r e a s a r e

s e l e c t e d t o cover a b o r t s d u r i n g the ?-minute p e r i o d of powered f l i g h t .
During t h i s t i m e , t h e l a n d i n g a r e a t r a v e r s e s t h e A t l a n t i c Ocean t o t h e
A f r i c a n c o a s t . By s u i t a b l e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e t i m e t o f i r e t h e r e t r o -
r o c k e t s , it i s p o s s i b l e t o reduce t h e t o t a l number of l a n d i n g a r e a s a s
shown i n f i g u r e 7. Next, planned l a n d i n g a r e a s a r e s i t u a t e d a t t h e end
o f t h e m i s s i o n , and t h e r e i s a t l e a s t one planned l a n d i n g a r e a a l o n g t h e
ground t r a c k of each o r b i t a l p a s s . (See f i g . 8 . ) Recovery f o r c e s a r e
deployed i n t h e s e a r e a s t o a l l o w l o c a t i o n and r e t r i e v a l w i t h i n 3 t o 5
hours a f t e r l a n d i n g . The remaining r e c o v e r y a r e a s a r e contingency l a n d i n g
a r e a s which a r e l o c a t e d t o g i v e a l a n d i n g c a p a b i l i t y i n case of emergency
a s shown i n f i g u r e 8 . Because of t h e v e r y low p r o b a b i l i t y of l a n d i n g i n
t h e s e a r e a s , r e c o v e r y f o r c e s a r e not u s u a l l y predeployed b u t a r e on a
standby b a s i s . Location and pararescue a s s i s t a n c e i s a v a i l a b l e w i t h i n
18 h o u r s . The a c t u a l r e t r i e v a l t i m e w i l l depend on t h e s i t u a t i o n . The
two f u n c t i o n s of r e c o v e r y a r e l o c a t i o n and r e t r i e v a l . Location i s u s u a l l y
accomplished by a i r c r a f t equipped w i t h d i r e c t i o n - f i n d i n g equipment. I n
a d d i t i o n , ground based high-frequency d i r e c t i o n - f i n d i n g f a c i l i t i e s a r e
used a s w e l l a s a MILS network depending on sound waves i n i t i a t e d by a
SOFAR bomb which i s r e l e a s e d from t h e s p a c e c r a f t a t l a n d i n g . R e t r i e v a l
i s accomplished i n t h e planned l a n d i n g a r e a s by t h e h e l i c o p t e r s , d e -
s t r o y e r s , or c a r r i e r s . I n t h e contingency l a n d i n g a r e a s , l o c a t i o n w i l l
be followed by a p a r a r e s c u e team dropping i n t o t h e a r e a of t h e s p a c e c r a f t
t o r e n d e r a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e a s t r o n a u t a s r e q u i r e d and t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e
s p a c e c r a f t remains a f l o a t .

GEMIN I

A s an i n t e r m e d i a t e s t e p between P r o j e c t s Mercury and Apollo, t h e

o b j e c t i v e s of P r o j e c t Gemini a r e :

1. To provide l o n g - d u r a t i o n manned f l i g h t experience ( u p t o

14 d a y s ) by s t u d y i n g e f f e c t s of w e i g h t l e s s n e s s , d e t e r m i n i n g
p h y s i o l o g i c a l and psychological r e a c t i o n s t o l o n g - d u r a t i o n
m i s s i o n s , and developing performance c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e crew.

2. To provide e a r l y manned rendezvous c a p a b i l i t y by developing

t e c h n i q u e s , a s s e s s i n g p i l o t f u n c t i o n s , developing p r o p u l s i o n
guidance and c o n t r o l , developing p i l o t d i s p l a y s , and t r a i n i n g
p i l o t s afid providing them w i t h rendezvocs e x p e r i e n c e .
 The Gemini s p a c e c r a f t shown i n f i g u r e 9 i s a c o n i c a l s t r u c t u r e
b e a r i n g a marked resemblance t o i t s p r e d e c e s s o r , Mercury. It c o n s i s t s
b a s i c a l l y of a r e e n t r y module and a n a d a p t e r . The r e e n t r y module c o n s i s t s
of a h e a t s h i e l d , crew and equipment s e c t i o n , r e a c t i o n c o n t r o l system
s e c t i o n , and t h e rendezvous and recovery s e c t i o n . The f i r s t s e c t i o n i s
p r e s s u r i z e d t o house t h e two a s t r o n a u t s s e a t e d i n r o c k e t c a t a p u l t e j e c t i o n
s e a t s i n a side-by-side c o n f i g u r a t i o n w i t h t h e command a s t r o n a u t on t h e
l e f t and the second a s t r o n a u t on t h e r i g h t . The a s t r o n a u t s f a c e r e a r -
ward and can v i s u a l l y observe t h e space environment through t h e o b s e r -
v a t i o n windows provided i n t h e i n g r e s s - e g r e s s h a t c h e s . The l a s t two
s e c t i o n s a r e u n p r e s s u r i z e d compartments. They c o n t a i n t r i c y c l e ,
s k i - t y p e l a n d i n g g e a r , t h e p a r a g l i d e r wing, and systems n e c e s s a r y t o
c o n t r o l t h e s p a c e c r a f t a t t i t u d e d u r i n g o r b i t a l and r e e n t r y f l i g h t .
E x t e r n a l access doors a r e provided f o r equipment compartments which
g r e a t l y reduce checkout t i m e and component replacement.

The a d a p t e r c o n s i s t s of t h e l a u n c h - v e h i c l e mating s e c t i o n , t h e
equipment s e c t i o n , and t h e r e t r o g r a d e s e c t i o n . The l a u n c h - v e h i c l e
mating s e c t i o n i s b o l t e d t o t h e launch v e h i c l e , and a p o r t i o n of t h i s
s e c t i o n remains w i t h t h e launch v e h i c l e when it s e p a r a t e s from t h e
s p a c e c r a f t . The equipment s e c t i o n c o n t a i n s major components o f t h e f u e l
c e l l s and t h e i r r e a c t a n t s u p p l y , t h e maneuvering p r o p u l s i o n system, t h e
equipment c o o l i n g system, and t h e primary oxygen supply f o r t h e e n v i r o n -
mental c o n t r o l system. The r e t r o g r a d e s e c t i o n c o n t a i n s t h e r e t r o g r a d e
r o c k e t s and some components of t h e equipment c o o l i n g system.

The v e h i c l e used t o launch t h e Gemini s p a c e c r a f t i s a modified

T i t a n 11, which used n i t r o g e n t e t r o x i d e a s an o x i d i z e r and UDMH (un-
symmetrical dimethyl h y d r a z i n e ) a s t h e h y p e r g o l i c f u e l . The Agena D
v e h i c l e , which w i l l be launched by an A t l a s launch v e h i c l e , w i l l be
used a s the t a r g e t v e h i c l e f o r Gemini rendezvous and docking. Both
t h e Gemini-Titan and t h e Atlas-Agena c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e shown i n
f i g u r e 10.

The O r b i t a l Mission

The normal mission can be l o g i c a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o s i x b a s i c p h a s e s .

They a r e prelaunch, l a u n c h , o r b i t , r e t r o g r a d e , r e e n t r y , and l a n d i n g .

The prelaunch phase i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same a s t h a t p r e v i o u s l y

d e s c r i b e d f o r Mercury, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t much of t h e Gemini
checkout w i l l be a u t o m a t i c . These a u t o m a t i c checkout procedures w i l l
reduce t h e time n e c e s s a r y f o r checkout a t Cape Canaveral from t h e
1
14 mor!t,hs f o r t h e Mercu-ry t o 2- t o
2
3 months for Gemini.
 9

The l a m c l i phase covers t h e countdown, t h e a s t r o n a u t s ' e n t r y i n t o

t h e s p a c e c r a f t , changeover from e x t e r n a l t o i n t e r n a l e l e c t r i c a l power
s y s t e m s , l i f t - o f f , end t h e f i r s t and second s t a g e s of powered f l i g h t .

I n t h e o r b i t a l phase, a s i n Mercury, t h e s p a c e c r a f t t u r n s 180" i n

yaw so t h a t t h e a s t r o n a u t s f a c e away from t h e d i r e c t i o n of mDtion. Apart
from any p a r t i c u l a r mission maneuvers, f o r t h e l o n g - d u r a t i o n f l i g h t s
t h e s p a c e c r a f t w i l l s t a y i n t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n f o r t h e complete o r b i t a l
d u r a t i o n . T h i r t y seconds b e f o r e r e t r o g r a d e i s pl-anned, t h e equipment
s e c t i o n of t h e a d a p t e r i s j e t t i s o n e d . The r e t r o g r a d e r o c k e t s a r e f i r e d
s e q u e n t i a l l y and t h e r e t r o g r a d e s e c t i o n of t h e a d a p t e r i s j e t t i s o n e d .
The r e e n t r y phase of t h e m i s s i o n i n c l u d e s t h e a c c u r a t e p o s i t i o n i n g of
t h e s p a c e c r a f t t o minimize h e a t i n g , and by use of a n g l e o f a t t a c k and
hence a moderate l i f t - t o - d r a g r a t i o and t h e onboard computer, t h e a s t r o -
n a u t s may make f l i g h t - p a t h c o r r e c t i o n s t o a s s u r e touchdown w i t h i n t h e
d e s i r e d a r e a . When a l l guidance e r r o r s a r e c o r r e c t e d , t h e l i f t v e c t o r
i s canceled by p u t t i n g t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n t o a slow 20"/sec r o l l . The
l a n d i n g phase b e g i n s when t h e a s t r o n a u t i n i t i a t e s deployment of t h e
drogue p a r a c h u t e . Subsequently, t h e drogue p a r a c h u t e is used t o e x t r a c t
t h e p a r a g l i d e r . By c o n t r o l l i n g the p a r a g l i d e r i n p i t c h and r o l l v i a t h e
c e n t r a l hand c o n t r o l l e r , e i t h e r a s t r o n a u t can f l y t h e s p a c e c r a f t t o a
c o n v e n t i o n a l l a n d i n g s i t e . The p a r a g l i d e r i s j e t t i s o n e d a f t e r touchdown.

Rendezvous

The rendezvous m i s s i o n a s shown i n f i g u r e 11 i s accomplished by

p l a c i n g t h e Agena t a r g e t v e h i c l e i n o r b i t and t h e n sometime l a t e r ,
p l a c i n g t h e Gemini s p a c e c r a f t i n a s i m i l a r o r b i t . Vehicle p r o p u l s i o n
c a p a b i l i t y i s used t o b r i n g t h e Gemini i n t o a docked p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e
Agena. The A t l a s does n o t provide s u f f i c i e n t power t o i n s e r t t h e Agena
i n t o o r b i t . F i n a l i n s e r t i o n w i l l b e accomplished by t h e Agena i t s e l f ;
and when t h e d e s i r e d o r b i t a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e o b t a i n e d , t h e Agena e n g i n e
w i l l b e s h u t down, b u t r e a d y f o r r e l i g h t i n g a t a l a t e r t i m e .

A f t e r t h e Agena t a r g e t i s i n o r b i t , t h e modified Mercury ground

t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s w i l l determine whether o r n o t t h e Agena i s o p e r a t i o n a l
and i s i n t h e proper o r b i t f o r rendezvous. There w i l l be a p e r i o d of
t i m e d u r i n g which t h e Gemini might be launched and be i n c l o s e proximity
t o t h e Agena. By r e l i g h t i n g t h e Agena p r o p u l s i v e system and changing
i t s o r b i t t o conform more c l o s e l y t o t h e Gemini o r b i t , t h e window c a n
be extended i n e x c e s s of 4 hours. The Gemini w i l l e i t h e r be launched
d u r i n g t h i s window or d u r i n g a corresponding window a t time i n t e r v a l s
o f a b o u t 24 h o u r s .

The m i s s i o n o b j e c t i v e i s t o complete t h e rendezvous by u s i n g

s p a c e c r a f t p r o p u l s i o n o n l y . However, t h e Agena p r o p u l s i o n i s a v a i l a b l e
i f i t i s r e q u i r e d . The Agena has an o p e r a t i o n l i f e t i m e i n o r b i t of
10

a t l e a s t 5 days. However, p r e s e n t p l a n s a r e t o complete t h e rendezvous

w i t h i n 24 hours. Launch t i m i n g and midcourse c o r r e c t i o n s of t h e T i t a n I1
w i l l b e such t h a t t h e Gemini s p a c e c r a f t w i l l be placed i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y
t o t h e Agena. The Gemini v e h i c l e w i l l b e i n a n o r b i t w i t h an a l t i t u d e of
87 t o 161 n a u t i c a l m i l e s . The a s t r o n a u t s w i l l c o n t r o l t h e Gemini v e h i c l e
t o approach t h e Agena i n accordance w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s from ground t r a c k i n g
stations.

A s the Gemini approaches w i t h i n 250 n a u t i c a l miles of t h e Agena i n

o r b i t , t h e Gemini can b e guided toward i t s t a r g e t a u t o m a t i c a l l y by a i d
of a n onboard r a d a r and computer, or t h e a s t r o n a u t may c o n t r o l t h e space-
c r a f t manually. A f t e r u s i n g t h e r a d a r system aboard t h e Gemini t o c l o s e
w i t h i n about 20 m i l e s of t h e Agena, t h e a s t r o n a u t s w i l l be a b l e t o use
t h e h i g h i n t e n s i t y , f l a s i n g l i g h t aboard t h e Agena for o p t i c a l t r a c k i n g .
A t t h i s t i m e t h e two v e h i c l e s , a l t h o u g h t r a v e l i n g a t some 18,000 mph,
w i l l have a speed d i f f e r e n t i a l o f only 1 t o 2 mph. F i n a l docking w i l l
b e achieved by manual c o n t r o l of t h e Gemini b y p l a c i n g t h e nose of t h e
Gemini i n t o t h e docking c o l l a r o f t h e Agena. There i s a p o s s i b i l i t y
t h a t a t e l e v i s i o n camera w i l l b e mounted on t h e Agena or i n t h e Gemini
s o t h a t t h e f l i g h t c o n t r o l l e r s can monitor t h e docking p r o c e d u r e s .

During t h e l a t c h i n g part of t h e docking phase, when clamps i n s i d e

t h e Agena c o l l a r g r a s p t h e Gemini nose cone and p u l l it i n t o a l a t c h e d
p o s i t i o n , t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n wires w i l l a l s o b e connected. The
a s t r o n a u t w i l l t h e n be a b l e t o observe t h e s t a t u s of t h e Agena systems.
F a c i l i t i e s aboard t h e Gemini s p a c e c r a f t w i l l e n a b l e t h e p i l o t t o s t a r t
t h e Agena p r o p u l s i o n system.

The Agena engine w i l l have m u l t i r e s t a r t c a p a b i l i t y ; t h u s , when t h e

Gemini arrives i n o r b i t , it w i l l have a n o t h e r e n g i n e w a i t i n g t h e r e t o
supply power f o r o r b i t a l maneuvering. Here t h e e n g i n e can be used
for a d j u s t i n g t h e o r b i t , e x t e n d i n g t h e apogee of t h e o r b i t , or f o r
changing t o a n o t h e r o r b i t .

With t h e a b i l i t y t o maneuver i n s p a c e , t h e Gemini p i l o t s might use

t h e Agena t o t h r u s t t h e Gemini s p a c e c r a f t i n t o a d i f f e r e n t o r b i t for
b e t t e r choice o f a l a n d i n g s i t e ; t h e y might c o n t r o l t h e i r d i r e c t i o n f o r
a s p e c i f i c l a n d i n g l o c a t i o n even though t h e i r c r a f t were n o t g o i n g t o
p a s s over t h a t r e g i o n d u r i n g t h a t o r b i t .

There i s t h u s a v a i l a b l e a f l e x i b l e system w i t h which t o perform a

v a r i e t y of missions i n a c h i e v i n g t h e d e s i r e d o b j e c t i v e s .

Because of t h e e x p e r i e n c e gained i n P r o j e c t Mercury, i t i s p o s s i b l e

t o reduce t h e number of network s t a t i o n s r e q u i r e d t o monitor t h e m i s s i o n .
The o r b i t a l m i s s i o n s w i l l be d i r e c t e d from t h e Mercury C o n t r o l Center w i t h
some s l i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n s . For t h e rendezvous m i s s i o n s , a new I n t e g r a t e d
Mission Control Center i s under c o n s t r u c t i o n n e a r Houston, Tex.
 11

Recovery o p e r a t i o n s w i l l remain e s s e n t i a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f
Mercury. One v a r i a t i o n which should b e mentioned i s t h a t some r e c o v e r y
a r e a s , y a r t . i c u l a r l y alone +.he 1aiinch t , r a j e c t , n r y i w i l l be e n l a r g e d , be-
cause o f t h e v a r i a b l e ia UKlCh aziirriuih ol" iiie G e r r i i r i i iauiicil vt.iilcie. Iii
a d d i t i o n , t h e Gemini s p a c e c r a f t has a l a n d l a n d i n g c a p a b i l i t y u t i l i z i n g
the paraglider.

PROJECT APOLLC

The Apollo o p e r a t i o n s p l a n a s shown i n f i g u r e 1 2 , i s , l i k e t h o s e

of Mercury and Gemini, t o b e a step-by-step program of i n c r e a s i n g com-
p l e x i t y . The program w i l l c o n s i s t of t h r e e p h a s e s : f i r s t , l o n g d u r a t i o n
o r b i t a l f l i g h t s ; second, f l i g h t s which approach t h e moon and p o s s i b l y
o r b i t t h e moon; and t h i r d , t h e l u n a r l a n d i n g m i s s i o n .

F i g u r e 1-3 i s a diagram of the Apollo s p a c e c r a f t . It i s composed

of t h r e e b a s i c s e c t . i o n s : t,he comma.nd. m o r j i i l e ~ t.he s e r v i c e module, and
t h e l u n a r e x c u r s i o n module. The command module houses t h e a s t r o n a u t s
and c o n t a i n s a l l systems necessary f o r t h e a s t r o n a u t s t o c a r r y out
t h e i r c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n s d u r i n g t h e m i s s i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , it c o n t a i n s
consumables of s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y f o r a r e e n t r y maneuver, a s u s t a i n e d
p e r i o d p r i o r t o r e c o v e r y , and a n adequate r e s e r v e s u p p l y . The s e r v i c e
module c o n t a i n s t h e major propulsion system, t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e power
system, and a l l t h o s e a d d i t i o n a l systems n e c e s s a r y t o complete t h e
normal l u n a r m i s s i o n . The l u n a r e x c u r s i o n module i s a completely
s e l f - c o n t a i n e d u n i t which i s capable of s e p a r a t i n g from t h e command
and s e r v i c e module, performing a maneuver t o l a n d on t h e moon, re-
maining on t h e moon f o r a s much as a day, and performing a rendezvous
maneuver w i t h t h e command and s e r v i c e module a t t h e completion of t h e
l u n a r mission. The command module has a normal crew of t h r e e , two o f
which form t h e crew of t h e l u n a r e x c u r s i o n module f o r t h e l u n a r l a n d i n g
m i s s i o n . The l u n a r e x c u r s i o n module has a c a p a b i l i t y of r e t u r n i n g t o
t h e command and s e r v i c e modu-le a t any t i m e d u r i n g t h e l u n a r l a n d i n g
maneuver. From an o p e r a t i o n a l p o i n t of view, t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l
d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e Apollo mission and t h e previous missions.
F i r s t , t h e r e i s a crew of t h r e e a s compared w i t h two f o r Gemini and
one f o r Mercury. Second, t h e crew has a l a r g e r c a p a b i l i t y f o r on-
board c o n t r o l t h a n i n previous m i s s i o n s . E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e crew h a s
t h e c a p a b i l i t y t o complete a normal m i s s i o n from l i f t - o f f t o l a n d i n g
w i t h o u t t h e a s s i s t a n c e of t h e ground systems. O f c o u r s e , t h e major
purpose of t h e gro-nd syster?, i s t o a s s i s t i n t h e c a s e of a normal
m i s s i o n and t o provide t h e r e q u i r e d emergency a c t i o n i n t h e e v e n t of
m a l f u n c t i o n s of e i t h e r t h e s p a c e c r a f t o r t h e launch v e h i c l e . T h i r d ,
t h e Apollo v e h i c l e h a s t h e c a p a b i l i t y f o r a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e v e l o c i t y
v a r i a t i o n , and a s a r e s u l t t h e number o f a l t e r n a t e missions and m i s s i o n
a b o r t s t h a t can b e performed i n the e v e n t of system malfunctions i s
extremely l a r g e .
12

me launch v e h i c l e s which a r e t o be used f o r t h e Apollo manned

space f l i g h t s a r e t h e S a t u r n C - 1 , S a t u r n C-lB, and t h e S a t u r n C-5.
The S a t u r n C - 1 and S a t u r n C - 5 a r e shown i n f i g u r e 14. The C - 1 i s a
two-stage v e h i c l e . The f i r s t s t a g e has e i g h t e n g i n e s which u s e l i q u i d
oxygen and RP-1 ( a form of k e r o s e n e ) . The second s t a g e i s t h e S-IV
which i s a p r o p e l l e d by l i q u i d hydrogen and oxygen. The C-1B i s s i m i l a r
t o t h e C-1 e x c e p t t h a t t h e second s t a g e i s r e s t a r t a b l e . The C-5 i s a
t h r e e - s t a g e v e h i c l e . The lower s t a g e c o n s i s t s o f f i v e F-1 e n g i n e s
which use a combination of RP-1 and l i q u i d oxygen. The second s t a g e
i s t h e S-11 which i s a l i q u i d hydrogen and oxygen s t a g e , and t h e t h i r d
s t a g e i s the S-IVB s i m i l a r t o t h a t used a s t h e second s t a g e of t h e
C-1B v e h i c l e . A l l v e h i c l e s a r e i n e r t i a l l y guided. The o b j e c t i v e of
t h e e a r l y o r b i t a l manned f l i g h t s of t h e k p o l l o v e h i c l e i s p r i m a r i l y t o
prove t h e t o t a l system i n t h e space environment f o r l o n g d u r a t i o n s com-
p a r a b l e t o t h o s e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e l u n a r mission. S e v e r a l m i s s i o n s a r e
involved which w i l l g r a d u a l l y b u i l d up t h e c a p a b i l i t y of t h e v e h i c l e
and p r o g r e s s i v e l y use a l l t h e r e q u i r e d systems. The e a r l y v e h i c l e s
w i l l u t i l i z e a communications system having a range which i s compatible
w i t h t h o s e of t h e p r e s e n t Mercury and proposed Gemini systems. For
example, it w i l l have a C-band t r a c k i n g beacon, UHF t e l e m e t r y system,
UHF v o i c e systems, and a UHF command system, a l l of which w i l l o p e r a t e
a t d i f f e r e n t f r e q u e n c i e s . E v e n t u a l l y , t h e ground network w i l l be
modified t o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e s p a c e c r a f t a t a s i n g l e frequency i n t h e
S-band range. A l l i n f o r m a t i o n flowing between t h e s p a c e c r a f t and t h e
ground w i l l b e o b t a i n e d by modulation of t h i s s i n g l e frequency. The
operations plans f o r these o r b i t a l f l i g h t s w i l l be very s i m i l a r i n
n a t u r e t o those used f o r t h e Mercury and Gemini o r b i t a l f l i g h t s . The
p r e f l i g h t checkout w i l l c o n t i n u e t o become more automated, u s i n g es-
s e n t i a l l y a computer c o n t r o l l e d checkout system. Mission c o n t r o l w i l l
be e x e r c i s e d f r s n t h e I n t e g r a t e r Mission C o n t r o l C e n t e r . The Apollo
program w i l l then c o n t i n u e on t o t h e l u n a r phase. T h i s phase w i l l
c o n s i s t of a s e r i e s of circumlunar f l i g h t s l e a d i n g e v e n t u a l l y t o t h e
lunar landing mission.

Figure 15 shows t h e b a s i c sequence of e v e n t s f o r t h e l u n a r l a n d i n g

m i s s i o n . The launch w i l l b e conducted from Cape Canaveral, F l a . The
v a r i a b l e launch t e c h n i q u e w i l l be used t o p r o v i d e , approximately, a
4-hour window d u r i n g each day. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e v e h i c l e w i l l f i r s t b e
put i n t o e a r t h o r b i t and w i l l remain i n o r b i t f o r a p e r i o d of from one
t o f o u r r e v o l u t i o n s . This o r b i t a l p e r i o d w i l l be used t o check o u t t h e
t o t a l v e h i c l e and t o provide f u r t h e r f l e x i b i l i t y i n s e l e c t i n g t h e i n -
j e c t i o n p o i n t f o r t h e t r a n s l u n a r p o r t i o n of t h e t r a j e c t o r y . A t t h e
r e q u i r e d time, t h e S-IVB w i l l b e r e s t a r t e d and t h e v e h i c l e w i l l b e
a c c e l e r a t e d t o approximately 36,000 f e e t p e r second. Following i n -
j e c t i o n , the S-IVB s t a g e w i l l b e s e p a r a t e d from t h e s p a c e c r a f t and t h e
l u n a r excursion modiile w i l l be r o t a t e d t o t h e forward end of t h e space-
c r a f t . I n t h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n such m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o t h e t r a j e c t o r y a s
a r e r e q u i r e d w i l l be made d u r i n g t h e t r a n s l u n a r phase. When t h e v e h i c l e
r e a c h e s t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e moon, a b r a k i n g maneuver which p l a c e s t h e
s p a c e c r a f t i n o r b i t around t h e moon w i l l be performed. Two members of
t h e crew w i l l t r a n s f e r t o t h e l u n a r e x c u r s i o n module which w i l l t h e n be
sepsrzted frm t h e csmaId-seY-:.izc mcd.;lc zo;r;l-,instlon. %e two -;ehizles
w i l l t h e n be p l a c e d i n d i f f e r e n t , b u t e q u a l p e r i o d o r b i t s . The o r b i t
of t h e l u n a r l a n d i n g module w i l l r e s u l t i n a l u n a r l a n d i n g , and t h e
o r b i t of t h e command and s e r v i c e module w i l l a l l o w c o n s t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n
of t h e l u n a r e x c u r s i o n module during t h i s c r i t i c a l l a n d i n g maneuver. The
l a n d i n g w i l l most probably t a k e p l a c e d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of e a r t h s h i n e ;
t h a t i s , w i t h t h e sun behind t h e moon, and w i t h i n a 10" band of t h e lunar
e q u a t o r . S u f f i c i e n t t i m e w i l l be allowed on t h e moon t o perform t h e
r e q u i r e d s c i e n t i f i c experiments - probably a p e r i o d of s e v e r a l hours.
The launch countdown w i l l then begin and a rendezvous maneuver w i l l be
performed u s i n g t h e p r o p u l s i o n system on t h e lunar e x c u r s i o n module.
The crew and c e r t a i n equipment w i l l be t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e command and
s e r v i c e module and t h e l u n a r excursion module w i l l a g a i n be s e p a r a t e d .
An i n j e c t i o n maneuver w i l l t h e n be performed and t h e v e h i c l e w i l l be
p l a c e d i n t o t h e t r a n s e a r t h t r a j e c t o r y . T h i s t r a j e c t o r y w i l l be shaped
s o t h a t it w i l l g i v e a free r e t u r n t o t h e r e q u i r e d l a n d i n g p o i n t on t h e
e a r t h . M o d i f i c a t i o n s t o t h i s t r a j e c t o r y w i l l be made a s r e q u i r e d by
u s i n g t h e s p a c e c r a f t p r o p u l s i o n system. The s e r v i c e module w i l l be
s e p a r a t e d from t h e command module j u s t p r i o r t o r e e n t r y i n t o t h e e a r t h ' s
atmosphere, a t approximately 36,000 f e e t per second. The command module
has a l i f t i n g c a p a b i l i t y which i s c o n t r o l l e d by r o l l i n g t h e l i f t v e c t o r .
Range v a r i a t i o n s of s e v e r a l thousand m i l e s a r e p o s s i b l e , and t h i s c o n t r o l
c a p a b i l i t y w i l l be u t i l i z e d t o land t h e v e h i c l e a t t h e r e q u i r e d p o s i t i o n
on t h e e a r t h . It i s most l i k e l y t h a t more t h a n one planned l a n d i n g a r e a
w i l l be a r r a n g e d t o provide f l e x i b i l i t y s o t h a t m i s s i o n s can be launched
on most days of t h e month. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e planned recovery a r e a s ,
contingency a r e a s w i l l be s e t up s i m i l a r t o t h o s e i n Mercury and Gemini,
and p r e s e n t p l a n s i n d i c a t e t h a t a high-frequency d i r e c t i o n - f i n d i n g
l o c a t i o n technique w i l l be used f o r t h e s e a r e a s .

POSSIBLE FUTURE PRKFUMS

Two p o s s i b l e f u t u r e manned programs which a r e b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d

by t h e N a t i o n a l Aeronautics and Space A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a r e i n t e r e s t i n g
t o examine from t h e o p e r a t i o n a l p o i n t of view. The o r b i t i n g e a r t h
l a b o r a t o r y which remains a l o f t for many months or even y e a r s provides
a n i n t e r e s t i n g o p e r a t i o n a l l o g i s t i c s problem. V e h i c l e s must be launched
a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s t o r e p l a c e consumables, t o r o t a t e t h e crews, and t o
change experiments i f n e c e s s a r y . I n a d d i t i o n , a continuous escape capa-
b i l i t y must be provided t h e crew i n o r d e r t h a t t h e y may r e e n t e r s a f e l y
t o t h e e a r t h should d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s e on t h e space s t a t i o n . Another
i n t e r e s t i n g program i s r e l a t e d t o i n t e r p l a n e t a r y f l i g h t s . The major
problem i n t h e s e programs w i l l probably be t h e d e s i g n of t h e s p a c e c r a f t
14

i t s e l f s i n c e m i s s i o n s of many months d u r a t i o n a r e probable and no

l o g i s t i c o p e r a t i o n for r e s u p p l y i s p o s s i b l e .

CONCLUSIONS

I n t h i s p a p e r , t h e o p e r a t i o n s which were n e c e s s a r y t o support t h e

Mercury program have been d i s c u s s e d . Also, p l a n s which a r e b e i n g f o r -
mulated f o r t h e Gemini and Apollo m i s s i o n s have been examined. Although
it was not p o s s i b l e t o d e s c r i b e t h e s e p l a n s i n d e t a i l , it i s hoped t h a t
some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e o p e r a t i o n s p l a n s and procedures r e q u i r e d for
manned space f l i g h t h a s been provided.
 TABT;E I. - OPEFiATIONS P W I N G

Mission planning
P r e f l i g h t planning
F l i g h t o p e r a t i o n s planning
Recovery planning

Ground s u p p o r t planning
Vehicle checkout f a c i l i t i e s
Network f a c i l i t i e s
Ground s u p p o r t equipment

Training
F1i g h t crew
Ground s u p p o r t personnel

Mission p r e p a r a t i o n
Scheduling
Documentation
Operations c o o r d i n a t i o n
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