Principles of Electricity

Rationale

Why is it important to learn this skill?

The study of electricity is a study of matter and of the fundamental force

called electromotive force (EMF) and the way this force is harnessed to do
work. Current, voltage and resistance are the basic properties of an electrical
circuit. Knowing what these are and how they affect a circuit will help you
understand why there are so many rules surrounding installation of electric
circuits, and why there are so many different wire sizes and circuit breaker
sizes. This module will also identify the difference between alternating
current (AC) and direct current (DC).

Outcome

When you have completed this module you will be able to:

Explain the basic concepts of electricity.

Identify quantities of electric circuits.
Compare the properties of electric devices.
Explain the characteristics of conductors and insulators.

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 9

1-1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF ELECTRICITY

What is electricity?

Generally, electricity can be defined as a form of energy or more

practically as the ability to do work. As an example, electricity can do work
by producing heat, by turning the shaft a motor, or by giving off light. This
ability is based on the notion that all things are essentially electrical in nature
in that they contain positive and negative charges. The electrical industry is
based on the manipulation and control of these positive and negative charges.

A single "negative charge" is called an

"electron" and is identified by the
symbol "-".

A single "positive charge" is called a

"proton" and is identified by the
symbol "+".

The "-" sign on a battery terminal

indicates a negative charge of many Figure 1-1
millions of electrons.

Most things, in their natural state and at their atomic level, are electrically
neutral; they contain the same number of positive charges as negative charges.
This balance can be changed by adding or removing negative charges from the
material. If negative charges are added, the material will take on a negative
charge. If negative charges are removed, the material will take on a positive
charge.

Electric charges follow two basic rules with respect to each other:

-
Proton Electron ** Unlike charges attract.
If they are able, they will move
+ toward each other.
Proton Proton
** Like charges repel.
If they are able, they will move
- away from each other.
Electron Electron

Figure 1-2

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 10

 When electricity is generated, the electrons and protons are forced apart.
When electricity is used the electrons and protons are allowed to come back
together. An electric circuit allows us to control or steer the electrons through
devices, such as light bulbs, so that the electricity (the movement of electrons)
will do work for us.

Sources of Electricity

There are several ways that electrons and protons can be forced apart,
generating electrical energy.

Friction: When two materials are rubbed together electrons are removed
from one of the materials leaving it with a positive charge. This
is commonly called "static electricity". Walking on a carpeted
floor will sometimes produce a difference in electric charge in
this manner. It will be detected when two materials are brought
close together and a spark jumps from one of the materials to
the other (from the doorknob to your finger).

In industrial settings, the potentially hazardous effects of static

electricity are eliminated by connecting the two materials
together in a way that allows the static charge to neutralize.

Chemical: A chemical reaction between two or more substances can result

in the separation of electrons and protons. The charge in a
battery is an example of this chemical reaction.

Magnetic: Moving a wire through magnetic field forces electrons to move

to one end of the wire. This is the principle used by the utility
companies to generate electricity. Typically, a generator
consists of a prime mover, such as a turbine, which is used to
rotate a large number of wires in a magnetic field.

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 11

Heat: Two dissimilar metals joined together will produce a difference
in electric charge when the junction is heated. This principle is
used in heating systems when a thermocouple is used to detect
the pilot flame in a gas-fired furnace.

Light: Light striking certain elements will produce a difference in

electric charge. Solar cells are used to generate power for a
wide variety of industrial, commercial and residential
applications, and are often used to power portable signs.

Pressure: Pressure applied to certain materials will produce a difference

in electric charge. Piezoelectric cells are used in electronic
circuits to detect changes in pressure.

The most common way of generating electricity for commercial use is

by electromagnetic generators, and batteries are used extensively when the
storage and portability of electricity is required.

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 12

 Alternating Current and Direct Current

DC Direct Current
In a DC circuit electrons move in one direction, from a negative terminal to a
positive terminal. Batteries provide direct current to a circuit, and provide
convenient ways to store electrical energy in a portable form..

AC Alternating Current
In an AC circuit, electrons move alternately in one direction and then in the
opposite direction at regular intervals. Alternating current is the type of
electricity that is supplied commercially by the power company. It is relatively
easy and inexpensive to generate and it is relatively easy to transform. The
rate at which alternating current changes direction is called its frequency and
is measured in Hertz (Hz). Commercial electricity is distributed at 60 Hz
(cycles per second).

1 - 2 TERMINOLOGY USED IN THE MEASUREMENT OF

ELECTRICITY

Voltage

The term voltage is used to describe the attractive force or electrical

pressure between objects of unequal or unlike charges. As more electrons are
separated from the protons the charge increases causing the attraction between
the objects to increase.

small electric charge

low voltage

greater electric charge

higher voltage

Figure 1-3

This pressure is sometimes called potential difference or electromotive

force (emf) and uses the symbol E. It is measured in volts and is often
abbreviated to V. Common residential circuits operate at 120 volts or 240
volts and examples of commercial distribution are 208 V, 347 V, and 600 V.

An emf is typically written as;

E = 15000 volts or E = 15000 V

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 13

High values of voltage, like the 15000 V shown above, will often use the
prefix "k" to represent 1000. Just as 1000 meters is equal to 1 km, 15000 V is
equal to 15 kV, therefore:
E = 15 kilovolts or E = 15 kV
The polarity of a voltage source refers to the charge on one of the
supply terminals with respect to the other terminal.

The polarity of the flashlight

battery shown in Figure 1-4 is
expressed in two ways:

- "B" is positive with respect to

"A"; or
- "A" is negative with respect to
"B".

It is important that you know the

polarity of devices before they are
Figure 1-4 connected together

Current

Current is the flow or movement of electrons in an electric circuit. It is

the rate that a number of electrons pass a given point in a second, not the
speed they travel. If the number of electrons passing a point in a wire is
increased, then the current will be higher. If the number of electrons passing a
point in a wire decreases then the current is decreased.

The symbol used to represent current in a circuit is I (Intensity of

electron flow). It is measured in amperes (or amps) and the symbol of the
unit of measurement is A. A typical residential circuit is capable of supplying
15 A.

A value of current is typically written as:

I = 15 amperes or I = 15 A

Very small currents, like 0.015 amperes, will often use the prefix "m"
(milli which means one thousandth of) in front of amperes ; 1 A = 1000 mA
therefore:

A very small current of 0.015 A may be written as; 0.0015 A

1000
I = 15 milliamperes or I = 15 mA

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 14

Note that current is the killing factor in electric shock!

Although voltage is important, it only determines how much current will flow
through your body if you accidentally become a current path. Since muscles
respond to electrical impulses from your brain, an external current flow will
affect muscles as well. Current flow through organs can interfere with their
operation. The following current levels outline the effect of current on an
average person.

Under 1 mA Causes no sensation, it is not felt.

1 - 10 mA Sensation of shock may be painful. The individual can release

contact at will. Control is not lost.

10 - 50 mA Painful shock. Muscular control may be lost. The individual

may not be able to release contact.

50 - 100 mA Painful shock, causing ventricular fibrillation of the heart. This

is the irregular twitching of the wall of the ventricle of the
heart. It is most often a fatal heart condition for which there is
no known remedy or resuscitation. It usually means death!

Over 100 mA Severe burns, severe muscular contractions such that

chest muscular reaction clamps the heart and stops it during the duration of
the shock. This clamping prevents ventricular fibrillation. Artificial respiration
may need to be administered immediately and in many cases the victim can be
revived. Sometimes the heart will restart on its own.

15,000 mA The rating of a standard receptacle.

6 mA Level of current when a Class A Ground Fault Circuit

Interrupter (GFCI) opens the circuit. (Refer to Unit Six)

Impedance

Impedance is the opposition to the flow of electrons in a circuit. All

electric loads oppose or impede the current. The amount of opposition
depends on the type of load and the number of loads connected.

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 15

 The symbol used to represent impedance in a circuit is Z. It is measured
in ohms and to the symbol for ohm is Ω. For example, home stereo speakers
are typically rated at 8 Ω.
Impedance is typically written as;

Z = 8 ohms or Z=8Ω
Relationship between E, I and Z

The amount of current flow (I) in a circuit depends upon the

relationship between the electrical pressure (E) and the impedance (Z). As
long as the impedance of a circuit stays the same the current flow in a circuit
will increase if the electrical pressure or voltage is increased and the current
will decrease if the voltage is decreased. Also, if the voltage stays the same,
current will increase if the impedance is decreased or decrease if the
impedance is increased.

This relationship is represented mathematically by Ohm's Law:

E=IxZ

In commercial electric circuits the voltage supplied by the utility

company is held constant. The impedance of the load determines the current
in the circuit. For example, the nameplate information on an appliance may
be given as:
E = 120 V and I = 12 A

This means that the impedance of the appliance will allow 12 A to flow
when it is connected to a 120 V supply. Ohm’s law is
Z=E so Z = 120 V = 10 Ω
I 12 A

Electrical Power

Sources of electrical energy like batteries or generators change one form

of energy into electrical energy. The rate at which the energy is changed, or
the amount of energy that the source can supply, is called power. For
example, a transformer power rating is the amount of power the transformer
can supply to a load. The loads in an electric circuit change the electrical
energy supplied from the source into another form of energy. Heat from a
stove element, light from a light bulb and rotational force from an electric
motor are examples of electrical energy being changed by a load into other

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 16

forms of energy. The rate at which energy is changed by a load is also called
power.

You may see power expressed in two different ways:

1. Apparent Power (S) measured in volt-ampere (VA); and

2. Power (P) measured in watts (W).

Each way is correct under certain conditions; however, confusion may

arise as they are sometimes used in place of one another. The rating of
incandescent light bulbs is given in watts. The rating of transformers is given
in volt-amperes.

This is complicated further when the rating of electric motors is given in

horsepower. Horsepower can be equated to watts.

1 horsepower (HP) = 746 watts (W)

In most cases, regardless of which method is used, we can say that power is a
product of the voltage and the current in the circuit.

Example 1: A light bulb that draws a current of 1 A when it is

connected to a 120 V supply would produce 120 W of power.

P=ExI = 120 V x 1 A
= 120 W

Example 2: A transformer that can supply a current of 8.3 A to a

120 V load is rated at 1000 VA.

S=ExI = 120 V x 8.3 A

= 1000 VA

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 17

 In either case, whether the rating of the equipment is in watts or volt-
amperes, the electrical power is a product of the voltage and the current.

1-3 PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

All electric circuits contain impedance but the impedance can be made
up of one of, or a combination of resistance, inductance, and capacitance.
Each of these properties has unique characteristics that affect the current in a
circuit in different ways.
IMPEDANCE

INDUCTIVE CAPACITIVE
RESISTANCE
REACTANCE REACTANCE

Resistance and Current Flow

When current flows through a material, the electrons bump into and
collide with the atoms that make up the atomic structure of the material.
These collisions cause the movement of the electrons to be restricted.

This electrical friction, which impedes the flow of electrons through the
material, is called resistance (R) and is measured in ohms (Ω).
The more collisions, the more the flow of electrons is restricted. These
restrictions vary with the type of material. Copper will have fewer collisions
than steel; therefore, copper will have a lower resistance. Other factors that
affect the number of collisions are: the length of the wire, the temperature of
the wire, and the thickness or cross-sectional area of the wire. The longer the
wire, the more chance of collisions, therefore the higher the resistance. The
hotter the wire the more chance of collisions because the atoms move around
more when they are heated. The thicker the wire the easier it is for the
electrons to move in the wire, therefore the lower the resistance.

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 18

Inductance and Current Flow

When current moves through an electrical conductor a magnetic field is

created around the conductor. The strength of the magnetic field depends on
the amount of current in the conductor.

An increase in current results in an increase in magnetic field.

If the magnetic field passes through nearby metal materials, currents can
flow in the nearby metal. The interaction of the magnetic field and the metal
will cause electrons to move within the metal. These currents, caused by
inductance, can create both useful and hazardous situations.
A useful situation arises if the conducting material (a wire) is arranged
in loops or coils; the magnetic field around one coil of wire can induce
currents into another coil that is nearby. The interaction between the magnetic
field of one coil and the wires of another coil is the basis of operation for
devices such as transformers, ballasts and electric motors.

A hazardous situation arises when high voltage cable is run inside

flexible metallic conduit or when a metal channel letter is used to enclose a
neon tube. The interaction between the magnetic field created by current
flowing in the cable and the metal can result in currents being induced into the
metal. This potentially dangerous situation can be eliminated by insuring that
all of the metal parts of a sign are bonded to the electrical equipment
ground.

Some examples of devices containing

The electrical property of inductance.
inductance is common in many
devices. Some examples of these - motors
devices are shown in Figure 1-5. - transformers
- ballasts
- relays

Figure 1-5
In an ac circuit, where the current and voltage are constantly changing,
inductance can have an effect on the current flowing in the circuit. Not only
does inductance cause currents to flow in nearby metals, it induces a voltage
into the wire carrying the current. This induced voltage attempts to move
electrons in the wire in a direction opposite to the main current in the circuit.
This opposition reduces the overall flow of electrons in the wire.

This form of impedance, which impedes the flow of electrons through

the material, is called inductive reactance (XL) and is measured in ohms (Ω).

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 19

 A transformer connected to a 120 V, 60 Hz source may have an
inductive reactance of 110 ohms.

XL = 110 Ω

Capacitance and Current Flow

Capacitance can occur when two devices or conductors are connected

to an electric source but are not physically connected together. Electrons from
the source will gather on one of the devices; the accumulated charge repels
electrons on the other device resulting in a voltage between the devices.

In most cases, capacitance in a circuit results from specially designed

devices called capacitors; however, capacitance can create both useful and
hazardous situations.

Capacitance in the form of capacitors is used in electric circuits for such

things as improving starting torque on electric motors. Capacitance can also
create a hazardous situation when non-electrical equipment such as sign
enclosures take on a static charge resulting from the electrical equipment
contained within. This potentially dangerous situation can be eliminated by
insuring that all of the metal parts of a sign are bonded to the electrical
equipment ground.

Capacitance will occur if the high-voltage cable, used with neon signs, is
run inside a metal raceway. The two conductors forming the capacitor are the
copper wire in the cable and the metal raceway. See Figure 1-6. The
capacitance can cause a voltage to be present on the metal raceway. This
problem can be reduced by limiting the length of the metal raceway. It can be
said that the longer the raceway the greater the capacitance.

METAL RACEWAY HIGH VOLTAGE COPPER CONDUCTOR

CABLE

Figure 1-6

When a capacitor is connected into an ac circuit where the voltage and

current is constantly changing, the stored charge in the capacitor causes a

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 20

voltage that opposes the source voltage. This opposition, resulting from the
reaction between the devices, reduces the overall flow of electrons in the
circuit.

This form of impedance, which impedes the flow of electrons through

the device, is called capacitive reactance (XC) and is measured in ohms (Ω).

It is important to note that all three properties: resistance, inductance

and capacitance, oppose the flow of electrons in an electric circuit.
However, each property impedes the flow for a different reason. The
combination of resistance, inductive reactance and capacitive reactance is
called impedance. Since all three impede the flow of electrons, the unit of
opposition is ohms (Ω) for each one.

1-4 Conductors and Insulators

Conductors

A conductor is used to carry electric current from one piece of electric

equipment to another piece of electric equipment. It may be a wire, cable or
any other material that allows current to flow through it. Conductors are
typically made of materials that have low resistance. The most common
materials used for conductors are copper and aluminum although gold and
silver are used in limited applications.

Insulators

Insulators are poor conductors of electric current. In fact, they are used
to prevent current from flowing where it is not wanted. The covering on wire
and cable is a good insulator.

GOOD CONDUCTORS GOOD INSULATORS

LOW RESISTANCE HIGH RESISTANCE

Gold Rubber
Silver Porcelain
Copper Plastic
Aluminum

Figure 1-8

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 21

Factors Affecting the Resistance of Conductors

The resistance of a conductor is affected by four factors:

1. Type of material Materials that have more "free electrons" in

their atomic structure are better conductors.
Copper has more free electrons than Iron.

↑ number of free electrons ⇒ ↑ current carrying capacity

2. Length of material Longer conductors have more resistance than

shorter conductors.

↑ length ⇒ ↑ resistance ⇒ ↓ current carrying capacity

3. Cross-sectional area Conductors that have a larger diameter have

lower resistance.

↑ cross-sectional area ⇒ ↓ resistance ⇒ ↑ current carrying capacity

4. Temperature In most cases, the resistance of conductors

increases as temperature increases.

↑ temperature ⇒ ↑ resistance ⇒ ↓ current carrying capacity

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 22

American Wire Gage (AWG)

The AWG size is based on the # 14 AWG

cross-sectional area of the # 12 AWG
conductor. Generally, conductors # 10 AWG
that have a larger cross-sectional # 8 AWG
area have a smaller AWG number. # 6 AWG

Conductors larger than # 10 # 4 AWG

AWG are required by the Canadian # 1 AWG

Electrical Code to be stranded, if
they are pulled into a conduit.
Figure 1-9

Selecting a Conductor

When selecting a conductor for a particular application, the following

factors should be considered:

1. Type of material: Although gold and silver are good conductors, they are
obviously too expensive for electrical applications. Aluminum can be
used; however, its current carrying capacity is less than that of copper and
its installation costs are often higher. It is usually used only for overhead
conductors because it is lighter than copper and therefore easier to support.
Copper tends to be the best material for most electrical installations. In
fact, in some applications it is the only material permitted by the Canadian
Electrical Code.

Unit 1: Principles of Electricity Page 23

2. Length: In most building installations, the length of the conductor is not a
problem, however, sometimes a larger wire than that required by the
Canadian Electrical Code for short runs is used to increase the current
carrying capacity on long runs of a conductor.

3. Cross-sectional Area: The cross-sectional area or AWG size of the

conductor is selected to match the current requirements of the load. Loads
that have higher current ratings will require a larger conductor (a smaller
AWG size). As noted in point two above, it may also be necessary to
consider the length of the conductor when determining the size required.
The resistance of the conductor could become a factor if you were
supplying a sign located some distance away from the building. If the
conductor chosen was too small the resulting increase in resistance would
cause an excessive voltage drop between the building service and the sign.
As an example, you may have 120 V at the building and only 100 V at the
sign. This may result in improper operation of the sign components. This
can be corrected by using a conductor with a larger cross sectional area.

4. Temperature: If the installation is in an area that has a high ambient

temperature (above 30 °C), it may be necessary to increase the size of the
conductor.

5. Insulation: The circuit voltage and the ambient temperature will both
affect the type of insulation that is used. Higher voltages may require a
thicker insulation (GTO or Gas Tube and Oil); higher temperatures may
require a different type of insulation (i.e. asbestos).

6. Flexibility: Certain conditions may require that the conductor, even at

small cross-sectional areas, be stranded.

Unit 1 Principles of Electricity Page 24

UNIT 1 SUMMARY

• Electricity is a form of energy that has the ability to do work by

producing heat, giving off light or turning a motor.

• Electricity is generated by separating positive and negative charges;

electricity is consumed when the positive and negative charges are
allowed to come together.

• The most common way of generating electricity for commercial use is

by using electromagnetic generators.

• Electrons always move in the same direction in a dc circuit; electrons

move alternately in one direction and then the other at a given frequency
in an ac circuit.

• Voltage describes the potential difference between two points; its

symbol is E or V. the unit for voltage is the volt, and its symbol is V.

• Current is the rate at which electrons are moving in a circuit; its symbol
is I and its unit is amperes and the symbol for amperes is A.

• Impedance is the opposition to the flow of electrons in a circuit; its

symbol is Z and its unit is the ohm (Ω).

• If E is constant and Z increases, I will decrease; If Z is constant and E

increases, I will increase.

• Electrical power is a product of E x I and, depending on the load, is

measured in VA or W.

• All electric circuits are made up of resistance, inductance and/or

capacitance.

• Resistance is the opposition to the flow of electrons in a circuit due to

electrical friction; its symbol is R and its unit is the ohm (Ω).

Unit 1 Principles of Electricity Page 25

• Inductive reactance is the opposition to the flow of electrons in a circuit
due to the induced voltages that oppose the source voltage; its symbol is
XL and its unit is the ohm(Ω).

• Capacitive reactance is the opposition to the flow of electrons in a circuit

due to the electrostatic charge that opposes the source voltage; its
symbol is XC and its unit is the ohm (Ω).

• Impedance, the total opposition to the flow of electrons is a combination

of resistance (electrical friction), inductive reactance (opposing induced
voltages) and capacitive reactance (opposing electrostatic charge).

• Resistance of a conductor is affected by the type of material, length,

cross-sectional area and temperature of the conductor.

• Generally, a larger AWG number indicates a smaller conductor.

Unit 1 Principles of Electricity Page 26