RADIOACTIVITY :-

In the last years of the 19th century many scientists focused on the research of
the properties of X rays. Henry Becquerel was among them. In 1896 he carried out an
experiment which aimed at examining whether various materials stimulated by
ultraviolet light to fluoresce also became the source of some molecules or waves (the
scientists linked the emergence of X rays with the fluorescence of glass stimulated by
cathode rays). In his experiment he used a photographic plate wrapped in two sheets
of black paper. The paper was opaque to light rays. Becquerel put on thus prepared
plate a substance, which was to be stimulated to fluoresce. He used crystals of
uranium-potassium sulphate. He exposed them to sun rays for several hours. After the
experiment he processed the photographic plate. He saw an outline of a fluorescent
substance on the processed plate.
In subsequent experiments he placed various object (e.g. a coin) between crystals
and the plate. That rendered negative images of the objects on the plate. Based on the
experiments carried out, Becquerel came to a conclusion that the investigated
substance emitted radioactivity which penetrated through paper and exerted chemical
action on the photographic plate.
However, a few days after the first experiment had been carried out, Becquerel
discovered that the photograph became blackened also when crystals containing
uranium were not stimulated to fluoresce by light radiation. Negative images appeared
also when the experimental set was kept in darkness. While investigating this
phenomenon, the scientist carried out a few experiments in which he tried to precisely
isolate uranium crystals from the influence of rays of different lengths. As it turned
out, the substance still emitted radiation. Soon afterwards Becquerel discovered that
various substances containing uranium admixtures emitted such radiation whether
they had the capability to fluoresce or not. Hence the source of the observed
phenomenon was uranium. Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity.
Becquerel's discovery, which was actually purely accidental, brought about turmoil
in the whole scientific community. Researchers tried to find out which substances
emitted radiation and what the properties of that phenomenon were.
In the years 1895-1896 Thomson and Rutheford focused their research on the
phenomenon of ionisation of gases exposed to rays discovered by Becquerel. During
this experiment Rutheford discovered that there were actually two kinds of the
radiation - one, called alfa, was easily absorbed even by sheets of paper; the other,
called beta, could penetrate even through thick metal sheets (e.g. through 0.25
centimetre thick aluminium).
In the years 1898-1899 scientists Marie Sklodowska-Curie, Pierre
Curie (1859-1906) and G. Bemont discovered new radioactive
elements - radium and polonium.
Rutherford and Owens discovered yet another radioactive element -
thorium.
Rutherford i Frederic Soddy (1877-1956) noticed that a certain
gaseous substance called "gaseous emanation" emanated from
radium. That gas did not show any chemical activity. Hence it was
similar to noble gases. After an examination with a spectroscope it
turned out that the gas included helium.

In subsequent years scientists undertook researches of both kinds of radiation. It

turned out that the hardly penetrative alfa rays consisted of positively charged
molecules (they are deflected in a magnetic field in the same direction as other
positive molecules). It turned out that the q/m ratio of those molecules equalled about
4.8*107 coulombs per kilogram. The ratio was twice smaller than the q/m ratio of
hydrogen ions. Scientists came to a conclusion that alfa molecules consisted of helium
atoms charged with a double positive charge - such molecules have the mass equal
4*(hydrogen mass) and positive charge 2*(elementary charge). Soon afterwards
Rutheford and Royds carried out the following experiment: they introduced a strongly
radioactive body into an extremely thin capillary tube (the walls were only 0.01 mm
thick). After tight closing the capillary tube was placed inside a more spacious tube
containing vacuum. Alfa molecules - but not the "gaseous emanation" - could
penetrate through the thick walls of the capillary tube. After a few days helium would
appear in the external tube. Its sole origin must have been alfa molecules, which lost
positive charge (electrons were attached) and changed into helium atoms.
Much more penetrative beta molecules can be deflected in electric and magnetic
fields in such a way that they must have negative charge. After subsequent researches
scientists came to a conclusion that beta molecules were simply electrons
(simultaneously researchers gathered observations which pointed out to the existence
of new laws, which were later described by the theory of relativity).
The third kind of radiation emitted by radioactive bodies was also discovered -
gamma radiation. It turned out that the radiation was actually electromagnetic waves
of a wavelength generally smaller than 10*-11 meter.

Soon after the discovery of the phenomenon of radioactivity many scientists

undertook the research of radioactive elements. They discovered that uranium,
thorium and actinium gave - through subsequent disintegrations - birth to a
numerous group of radioactive elements. Those elements were set by researchers into
sequences in such a way that each element originates from the one that precedes it in
the table and is transformed into the substance following it in the table. The last
element of all sequences is a permanent element (namely lead). In the radioactive
sequence, there often appeared elements of the same chemical properties but of
.(different atomic masses (this clue pointed out to the existence of isotopes