Neutrino radiation from nuclear power plants Page 1 of 16

Neutrino radiation
from
nuclear power plants
(NPP)

Peter H. Rassmann
3 / 2008

The environment of nuclear power plants has been the blind spot of high science for
decades. So was the neutrino radiation for environmentalists. This paper closes the
gap.

Everything you ever wanted to know about NPPs and neutrinos. Is it time to get
worried?

Executive summary: Nuclear Power, Electricity, Neutrinos

Childhood Leukemia, German KiKK Study
Radiation Protection
TO DO List

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Content

1 Neutrino radiation .....................................................................................................3

2 Nuclear power plants (NPPs) ...................................................................................4
2.1 Neutrino production by nuclear fission ..............................................................4
2.2 Energy balance of NPPs ...................................................................................5
2.3 Neutrino radiation and induced radioactivity......................................................6
3 Neutrino measurements ...........................................................................................7
4 The neutrino gap ......................................................................................................8
5 Scenarios (worst case) ...........................................................................................10
5.1 Dangerous rare elements................................................................................10
5.2 Underfloor heating...........................................................................................11
6 No measurements but hints....................................................................................12
7 To do ......................................................................................................................14
8 Technical notes ......................................................................................................15
8.1 The numbers ...................................................................................................15
8.2 Neutrino interactions .......................................................................................16

The Author

Peter H. Rassmann
Paul-Gossen-Str. 34
91052 Erlangen
Germany

phone +49 172 442 3637

e-mail peter_rassmann@yahoo.com

All pictures and diagrams within this paper are under GNU Public License.
Source: Either www.wikipedia.org or self-made.

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1 Neutrino radiation
Neutrinos are subatomic particles. They were predicted 70 years ago, and were
observed for the first time in reactor experiments some 50 years ago. If a lot of those
particles travel in one direction, this is called “neutrino radiation”.

Neutrinos are produced in nuclear reactions.

Deep in the sun, hydrogen atoms are fused
together to build more heavy helium atoms.
This fusion process releases a lot of energy and
neutrinos. In a nuclear reactor, heavy uranium
atoms are split into smaller nuclei. Again,
energy is released, and neutrinos, too. The
fusion process in the sun is a sort of reversal of
the fission process within nuclear reactors, and
the neutrinos produced behave somehow in an
opposite way. Consequently, neutrinos from the sun are plainly called “neutrinos”,
whereas neutrinos from nuclear reactors are called „anti-neutrinos“.

Because the word „anti-neutrinos“ is too long and clumsy to write and read it all the
time, I’ll just go ahead and call them „neutrinos”. We are talking about nuclear reactors
here, and the meaning should be clear.

Neutrino radiation is different from other types of radiation that you may know about,
perhaps from everyday life. For example, you may have noticed that your mobile
phone’s signal strength is reduced by and by, if shielded by some matter. The same is
true in principle for other more radioactive types of radiation like alpha, beta or gamma
rays: Because they permanently interact with matter, this radiation is absorbed more
and more the deeper it penetrates into material. Neutrinos are different. They just pass
thru material without a trace, but if they interact, they sort of trash the target nucleus,
releasing a lot of energy and radioactivity on the spot. Between the neutrino source and
the target nucleus, you can’t measure them and they don’t leave a trace.

In popular science, neutrinos are sometimes called „ghost particles“ or „spooky“. In a

way, that’s mostly a marketing effort on the part of the publishers. Neutrinos aren’t
„spooky“. it is just hard to identify them uniquely with a detector. The “unique
identification” of a “typical neutrino signature“ – that is the very tough part. There is so
much radioactivity in nature that you mostly don’t know whether it was caused by a
neutrino, or whether it was just there to begin with – natural radioactivity.

For those interested in physics, there is a general description here

(http://en.wikipedia.org/Neutrino ), a few words on detectors here
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino_detector ) and a list of detectors with their basic
properties here (in German, http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrinodetektor ). Elementary
particle physicists use neutrino detectors to explore their “Standard Model” of
elementary particles. But I recommend some sobering up to begin with: With the
Standard Model, you can explain almost everything and calculate almost nothing. This
is especially true for the nuclear physics part of the story.

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2 Nuclear power plants (NPPs)

Nuclear power plants produce energy by splitting heavy atomic nuclei like Uranium-235,
short U-235, by neutrons. The fission products are two smaller nuclei and a few
neutrons, all together a bit less in weight than the original U-235 atom plus the incident
neutron. The mass difference is set free as energy, according to the famous formula

E = m*c2.

You have heard about that. The generated neutrons fuel the chain reaction by splitting
other nuclei, or are absorbed or decay. All radioactive particles are absorbed inside the
reactor, turning their energy into thermal power. The whole process generates
neutrinos, too, which escape from the reactor and take their energy with them.

2.1 Neutrino production by nuclear fission

The fission products are not all stable. They are mostly nuclei rich in neutrons, which
makes them β--emitters. That means a neutron inside the nucleus turns into a proton,
and an electron and a neutrino are emitted by the new nucleus. The leftover free
neutrons from the chain reaction decay the same way, mutating into a proton and
radiating an electron and a neutrino. Most of those decays after the fission happen
within a short time, and the energy is transferred as heat to the reactor’s coolant by
multiple collisions of all the high-speed particles.

The picture on the right illustrates a fission

process. An incoming neutron from the left
side hits an U-235 nucleus. The U-235
splits into two smaller nuclei and emits a
few neutrons. The fission products,
including one of the neutrons, decay by
emitting an electron and a neutrino each.
Most nuclei are in excited states, so they
would emit gamma-rays (γ). The neutrons
keep the chain reaction going by splitting
other U-235 nuclei. The kinetic energy of
all particles and all radioactivity is
transferred to the coolant to generate the
heat.

The neutrinos (ν e ), encircled with yellow lines, just leave the reactor, because there
is no shielding to stop them. They carry away about 6 % of the total reactor energy.

The neutrinos which leave the reactor don’t carry all the same amount of energy.
Some have much more energy than others. A graphics that shows how may
neutrinos carry which energy is called the „neutrino spectrum“ of the reactor.

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The picture on the right shows a

thumbnail representation of a „neutrino
spectrum”. I’ll explain it later on in more
detail, but for the moment, it is important
to remember this: For each neutrino
energy, the spectrum gives the number
of neutrinos leaving the reactor, carrying
away this amount of energy.

2.2 Energy balance of NPPs

A typical NPP has a thermal power of about 4000 MW (Mega-Watts). Thermal power
is the amount of heat generated within the coolant by the fisson process.

But it is not only heat that is generated

inside the reactor. The total reactor
power is about 4250 MW. From this
energy, about 250 MW or roughly 6 %,
is radiated away by the neutrinos. It
just disappears from the reactor. The
thermal power is delivered to the
turbine and generator. About 1300 MW
of electricity is produced by the
generator, the remaining 2700 MW is
waste heat and is dumped into a river,
heating it a little, or is evaporated into
clouds within cooling towers.
About 200 – 250 MW is emitted into the environment as neutrino radiation, which
cannot be shielded (ν e in the picture above).

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2.3 Neutrino radiation and induced radioactivity

Today, it is generally assumed that the 200 or 250 MW of neutrino radiation from an
NPP just penetrates all material, without leaving a trace at all. The energy just seems
to disappear into the void. Please try to imagine what we are talking about: 200 MW
of energy delivers enough heat to melt 200 tons of steel per hour, or enough
electricity to fuel 2 Million 100 Watt light bulbs. And this energy, as everybody
believes, disappears?

The question at hand is, whether this

energy really disappears for good, or
else, what happens if it does react in
some way with the environment? If
some of the neutrinos could react with
some material in the surroundings,
than at least a part of the 200 MW
would reappear in the environment,
probably as induced radioactivity.
Just to make sure – the neutrino radiation from nuclear reactors is for real, and this
order of magnitude – 6 % of the NPPs total power – is something that has been
known for decades. Among nuclear scientists and particle physicists, NPPs are
known as a source of neutrinos, to do some experiments with. So if there is a
problem of some sort, how come nobody noticed so far? Well, it is not certain there is
a real problem. Maybe there isn’t a problem at all. But it seems to me that physicist
sort of “measured around the question”. They have designed their experiments in
such a way to make sure they only measure neutrinos. They only picked up a certain
type of signal with a unique signature. But if neutrinos do other reactions as well, and
they can do it in theory, nobody measured it to date. That way, the physicists have
clear signals to prove their theories, but they can’t really judge upon the
environmental hazard of NPPs.

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3 Neutrino measurements
Neutrinos were discovered in 1956 with a reactor experiment by Frederick Reines
and Clyde Cowan. Both received the 1995 Nobel Price in physics for their
achievements. Since then, two more types of neutrinos were discovered. Today,
three “generations” of neutrinos are known, the electron-, myon- and tau-neutrino. All
three types have anti-neutrinos to go with.

For NPPs, the anti-electron-neutrinos are of interest. However, this is an important

fact to remember: The neutrinos from an NPP are the anti-particles of solar neutrinos.
This is important because occasionally, the media reports about huge neutrino
experiments looking for solar neutrinos. According to solar theories, every square
centimeter of earth’s surface is being passed by trillions or so of solar neutrinos per
second, and all the neutrinos from the big bang are still around, too. So what, you
might think, if there are so many around, and they are so hard to come by, what can
a few more from an NPP do? The answer is: Just because there are so many solar
neutrinos around, it would be impossible to have a stable material here on earth to
react with them. It would have been disintegrated long ago. So if you have a stable
material on earth, it is unlikely to react quickly with solar neutrinos. This type of
statement however is not true for the anti-neutrinos from a nuclear reactor, for
nuclear reactors haven’t been around that long. The physicists are trying to answer
different questions with their huge detectors, and they are looking for different
particles from the sun.

Now let’s get back to the particles we are interested in, the anti-electron-neutrinos
from a nuclear reactor, which I’ll call “neutrinos” for short. I would like to summarize
the method how the neutrinos were detected in the first place. This is basically the
experimental setup of the Cowan & Reines discovery. The setup has been reused
the same way, or at least in a similar way, for all experiments ever since.

The target material is water. Water

molecules are formed from two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom. The
nucleus of the hydrogen atom is a single
proton (p+). The picture to the right
shows a neutrino(ν e ) from a reactor
hitting such a proton, transforming it into
a neutron (n) and a positron (e+). The
positron will disintegrate with it’s
antiparticle, an electron (e+) into two
gamma rays (γ). The neutron will be
captured, within a short coincidence
time, by a neutron detector.

The two signals from the positron and the neutron within a very short time span give
a clear signature for a neutrino reaction, or a “neutrino event”, how it is called in
physics speak.
.

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4 The neutrino gap

With an experiment like the above, Cowan & Reines fetched their Nobel Prize. This is
indeed a very nice setup if you want to make sure you’ve discovered neutrinos. It is
almost certain that only neutrinos can produce the type of coincidences that you see
in a detector like that. This way, neutrino events can be clearly distinguished from
other events, which are caused by all sorts of natural radioactivity called background
radiation.

However, there is no way to tell that you have indeed measured all neutrino events,
since neutrinos can do other types of reactions, too.

In theory, a neutrino from a reactor can react with any particle within the target
material. If the target is water, it can react with the protons and neutrons from the
oxygen nuclei, or with the electrons of the atomic hulls. And, of course, the
experiment doesn’t say anything about other materials, with other chemical elements
used for a target.

That’s not the whole story yet. In order to produce this unique neutrino signal, the
incident neutrino has to transform a proton into a neutron and a positron, and this
transformation requires a certain amount of energy. So the neutrino has to bring in
this amount of extra energy to make the reaction work. In physics speak, you say that
the energy threshold for the reaction is 1.8 Mega-electron-Volts, or 1.8 MeV for short.

“MeV” is just some energy unit in particle physics. The important thing is that not all
neutrinos carry enough energy for the reaction. That means most neutrinos cannot
be detected at all, because they don’t carry enough energy. Let’s take a closer look
at it.

The nuclear reactor’s neutrino

spectrum, introduced earlier, is a
diagram that shows the number of
neutrinos with a specific energy, as
emitted by the reactor. Between two
labels of the energy axis, you select
the interval you’re looking at, and the
area above it, below the spectrum’s
curve, gives you the number of
neutrinos within that interval. The total
area below the curve is equivalent to
the total number of neutrinos emitted
by the reactor.

Within the above spectrum , the threshold energy for neutrino detection is marked by
a green line. This means that only a number of neutrinos equivalent to the small area
on the right side can be detected at all. It is about 3 %. The vast number of neutrinos,
equivalent to 97 %, cannot be detected with a present day apparatus at all.

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This doesn’t mean that neutrinos below this threshold cannot react with matter. It only
means that scientists so far are a bit choosy with their detectors. Primarily, so far they
wanted to see clear neutrino evidence, and that was needed to prove the theories.

And here is the “Neutrino Gap”. If a neutrino interacts with some heavy atoms – the
sort of atoms with lots of protons and neutrons in it – the energy levels inside the
atom must be included to describe the process. If a neutrino transforms a heavy atom
into an “isobar”, all the structures inside it are reshuffled. “Isobar” means “equal
weight”, because the atom has roughly the same mass, an electron and a proton
less, but a neutron more. As far as the theory goes, a neutrino with relatively low
energy of 0.1 MeV or below can react with some heavy atoms and turn them into
radioactive isotopes. That’s because the energy difference is delivered by the inside
reshuffling of the atom. Mostly all neutrinos from an NPP have enough energy to do
that.

For an environmentalist’s point of view, and looking at commercial nuclear reactors,

the question is: How often does this happen? What type of radioactivity and how
much is to be expected around an NPP, due to the neutrino radiation? Unfortunately,
the answer is unknown.

That’s the Neutrino Gap.

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5 Scenarios (worst case)

So far, I have explained how neutrinos are generated within NPPs, and how they
were discovered, what the disadvantages of present day detectors are, and why
scientists circumvented the problem to get the results they wanted. Now I’d like to
propose two “worst case scenarios”, which are the basic nightmares related to
neutrino radiation in the surroundings of NPPs. However, I’d like to stress the fact
that those scenarios are merely hypothetical. Since there are no measurements,
there is so far no scientific evidence for this to happen. There are hundreds of NPPs
all over the world in operation, and just by the experience gained from those NPPs, it
should be possible to reject the scenarios in parts out of hand.

This is the path of arguments: Assert the worst case scenarios, and try to figure out
by what reasoning they can be devaluated, based on today’s knowledge. (On this
part, the reader is requested to join in with his own experience. For example, I am not
a specialist for radiation protection of NPPs, and that’s why I certainly miss a few
small but utterly important details.)

5.1 Dangerous rare elements

In this scenario, I presume the existence of just a few rare chemical elements,
respectively even more sparse isotopes, that can react with neutrinos at an
unexpected rate. This means that those isotopes are presumably localized at few
spots within the soil or the rock foundations, and seldom find a way inside the human
body when consumed as food or drinking water.
In the picture on the right, a neutrino
from a reactor interacts with an atom of
the presumed „dangerous rare
element“ inside a human body. Some
primary radiation is immediately
released, and a radioactive isotope
with some lifetime is produced. After a
while, the isotope decays and more
radiations is deposited inside the body.
Another neutrino hits an atom of the
presumed mineral inside the earth. The
primary radiation is shielded by the soil
and rock above it.

The longer-lived isotope produced by the neutrino accumulates along the food chain,
or within the drinking water. Eventually, it reaches a human body, where it decays
and releases radioactivity.

A shielding against this type of radioactive contamination is not possible, because the
neutrinos easily penetrate most materials. Moreover, the radiation can not easily be
traced to the reactor, because the neutrinos cannot be seen between their source
and their target. If the specific dangerous element were known, it might be possible to
use additives to the nutrition, as surplus replacement elements, to prevent the
radioactive isotopes from being incorporated into the body (this procedure would be
similar to the prescription of iodine pills in the case of nuclear incidents).

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5.2 Underfloor heating

The starting condition in this scenario is a presumed comparatively high neutrino

reactivity of some major soil or rock chemical elements.

The reactor emits some 100 MW of .

neutrino power into the air, and an
additional 100 MW or so into the soil
and rock foundation below. The
neutrinos interact with the material
within the earth according to their
mean penetration depth, which is
unknown at present. The primary
events cause radioactivity, which is
mostly shielded by substances above.
Only a slight increase in radioactivity
will be recorded at ground level in the
NPP’s surroundings.

Depending on the lifetime of the produced radioactive isotopes, some accumulation

may occur when radioactive substances are solved in water or are accessible to
living organism of the food chain. From here on, the scenario would look somewhat
similar to the previous one “dangerous rare elements”. It should be noted, however,
that the 100 MW of power radiated into the earth, when turned into radioactivity and
summed up over one year, would be equivalent to about 75 % of a 1 Megaton
hydrogen bomb.

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6 No measurements but hints

The only sure method to find out what neutrinos can do to material is to measure it. I
mean to measure it with all chemical elements, and including all neutrino energies.

In the absence of those measurements, there are a few hints to help take glimpses at
neutrino interactions. First of all, the values of those high energy neutrinos have
been measured. The numbers say that neutrinos will induce just a few radioactive
events, per kilogram of water and per day, right next to the reactor. That’s indeed
very little compared to natural radioactivity. It is often quoted that “one light year of
lead would be needed to stop the neutrinos, because they don’t interact”. That is
false, just because nobody ever measured lead. The only known value is for the
hydrogen – e.g. protons - in water molecules. From other types of radiation it is
known that the absorption can vary by ten orders of magnitude, depending on
material and energy. This applies for energies below 1.8 MeV, because the radiation
“sees” the internal structure of atoms and matter in this range. This is true for
electron, neutron, alpha and gamma radiation (gamma includes all types of
electromagnetic radiation in this case, like X-rays or visible light, or the waves that
drive you mobile phone).

There are some more experiments related to nuclear reactors. Unfortunately, they
again are only sensitive to high energy neutrinos. They look at the attenuation of the
neutrino flux, that is, whether the neutrino beam flux is dimmed as it travels along.
These experiments try to investigate whether neutrinos “disappear”. The general idea
is to prove “neutrino oscillations” – a process by which neutrinos change from one
type to another, and thus avoid detection.

At one experiment at the Goesgen

NPP in Switzerland, done in the 80th,
no neutrino disappearnce was
measured, over a distance of some 50
meters thru the air. Another
experiment, called KamLand and
located in Japan, was done on a much
larger scale with a detector located in a
cave, to shield against background
radiation. There are 53 NPPs located
in the vicinity, with an average distance
of 180 kilometres away from the
detector. The result indicates that only
about 70 % of the expected neutrinos
are detected.

The KamLand experimenters explain the disappearance of the neutrinos by „neutrino

oscillations“, but a more conservative approach would prefer an absorption process
instead.

The problem of disappearance is annoyingly around for 40 years with solar neutrinos,
those from the sun. They are the anti-particles of neutrinos from reactors, but they
disappear nevertheless somehow. Presumably they are produced in the core of the
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sun. The most important production process would be the fusion of two protons into a
deuterium. Unfortunately, that process releases rather low energy neutrinos, and thus
experimenters went after their brethren with higher energies, from more scarce fusion
processes. After a close look, they had a solar neutrino problem: “Discrepancies in
the measurements of actual solar neutrino types and what the sun's interior models
predict.“ They explained it by “neutrino oscillations”. Since then, they got other
detectors which faciliate a look at the lower energy neutrinos, but the problem is still
around, and is still explained the same way – by neutrino oscillations.

One thing is certain about solar neutrinos. If there ever was a material – some
isotope – on earth that reacts strongly with solar neutrino, it would have been
disintegrated within a short time, by the very solar neutrinos. “Short time” is to be
taken relative to the earth’s age of 4 billion years. That makes it tough for researchers
to get hold of a material that reacts strongly with solar neutrinos. They used this one
isotope, Gallium-71, which reacts with solar neutrinos to form Germanium-71. The
scientists set up 30 tons of the stuff as a target in Italy, and counted the few atoms
per day that were transformed by neutrinos. Again, they found the numbers are too
small.

The scientists are somewhat fascinated by the idea of “neutrino oscillations”, but to
judge environmental hazards around NPPs, no real conclusion comes from solar
neutrinos so far.

A hint for the existence of a reactor neutrino problem came from the medical
sciences. A study undertaken in Germany by the German Childhood Cancer Registry
found a significant increase in childhood leukaemia around nuclear power plants.
There have been more findings like that in the past, but this is the first one which
gives a generally recognized statistical security. The study, done on behalf of the
German Federal Agency for Radiation Protection (BfS) , was scrutinized by external
experts, and comes to the conclusion: There is a significant increase in childhood
cancer around commercial nuclear reactors, within a distance of 5 kilometres. With
the state of the art of knowledge, this increase cannot be accounted for by the
radioactivity emitted by the plants.

A quote from the paper:

“What are the causes of the increased cancer rates? When considering the
hypothesis of an impact of radioactive discharge, it can be established that current
knowledge suggests that the additional radiation exposure of the public through the
operation of a power reactor is too small to cause the effect. The exposure would
have to be 1000 to 10000 times higher. There currently is no plausible explanation
for the observed effect, which has been showing an overall consistent picture with
little fluctuations over the 24 year period.”

So far the underlying scientific model of NPPs does not include the neutrino radiation
of NPPs at all. An additional and unexpected induced radioactivity or contamination
due to neutrinos may explain the medical findings. As it stands, the KiKK-study just
looks like a set-up to search for the interactions of neutrinos with matter.

(For further information on the KIKK study, please refer to the English language site
http://www.bfs.de/en/kerntechnik ).

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7 To do
Based on the present level of knowledge about neutrinos, it is not possible to judge
upon the environmental hazards of an NPP’s neutrino radiation.

All measurements within neutrino physics to date were designed to prove or disprove
the latest trends in elementary particle physics, and they were not designed to study
the environmental contamination of NPPs. They were done for the wrong energy
band, and for one material (hydrogen) only.

The probability for radioactive

reactions of neutrinos with matter may
vary greatly, depending on the target
material and the neutrino energy. By
comparison with other types of
radiation, it may be assumed that the
reactivity could fluctuate over 10 orders
of magnitude, and may impose a
radiological threat. It is necessary to
undertake a systematic study of the
reactions between reactor neutrinos
and the various chemical elements that
compose the environment.

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8 Technical notes
This attachment contains some technical notes that have some importance, but may
have disrupted the flow of conception in the previous chapters.

8.1 The numbers

Within this paper, there are frequent references to two numbers:

1. „6 % of an NPP’s total power is radiated away as neutrinos.“ How much

energy of a typical nuclear fission goes into neutrinos can be looked up in the
internet at several sites. Sometimes, the energy is given as percentage of a
fission process of some specific nucleus as measured in MeV. How atoms are
split into parts by nuclear fission processes can only be stated on average,
since the fission products vary. I have take the “average 6 % of total power“
from the book by Franz Rudolf Kessler (German), „Kernenergiegewinnung
und Kernstrahlung“. ( English „Nuclear power and nuclear radiation“). For a
more precise value, a detailed knowledge of the plant and its operation is
required (see below).

2. „Only 3 % of all reactor neutrinos carry an energy of more than 1.8 MeV and
can trigger a reaction within the detectors. 97 % of all neutrinos escape
unnoticed.“ Those 3 % are hard to calculate, more precisely, because you
would have to know the details about a plant including geometry, nuclear fuel
and nuclear ashes produced so far, age and details of its operation over time,
and more. You may then be able to calculate the masses of all the β-emitters
as a function of time, and get the plant’s neutrino spectrum as a superposition
of all spectra of participating ß-emitters. Past experiments with reactor
neutrinos avoided this problem in parts, because the experimenters were only
interested in a relative neutrino flux, like between two different detector
locations. Also, the interest was in the high energy neutrino band, where the
neutrinos were detectable with their experimental apparatus. I am not even
sure there are software programs to calculate the neutrino spectrum for all
different reactor types. Personally I know of only one software program that
may allow for a neutrino spectrum calculation for boiling water reactors. The
value „3 % of neutrinos are above threshold of 1.8 MeV“ is taken from Donald
H. Perkins book, „Introduction to High Energy Physics“. In the book, he uses
the number to explain the original Cowan & Reines neutrino experiments.

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8.2 Neutrino interactions

According to current theories, neutrinos react with matter with a mechanism called
„weak interaction“. Within the scope of this paper, it is impossible to explain the
theory. But the term “weak” is often misused in popular science in a way like
“neutrinos rarely interact with matter because the reaction goes by weak interaction”.
A statement like that is just as true or false as this one: “You can’t fall down and
break your nose because gravity is the weakest interaction of them all.”

The interaction of neutrinos with matter, even when described by current theories, is
governed by more parameters. In the absence of measurements, it is a bad advise to
rely only on the label “weak”.

For those interested in the matter, I have compiled a second paper named
“Interactions of soft neutrinos with matter”. It requires some background in physics. If
you have interest in the topic, please don’t hesitate to contact me.

Interactions of
soft antineutrinos
with matter

Peter H. Rassmann
3/2008

Peter H. Rassmann, Paul-Gossen-Str. 34, 91052 Erlangen, Germany printed 20080312

phone +49 172 4423637 e-mail peter_rassmann@yahoo.com